对教育技术发展起重要影响的名家介绍1

4. 戴维·奥苏贝尔（David P. Ausubel）——心理学家、教育家
戴维·奥苏贝尔（1918— ）——1939年在宾夕法尼亚大学获学士学位，1940年在哥伦比亚大学获心理学硕士学位。1943年获布兰迪斯大学医学博士学位，1950年获哥伦比亚大学哲学博士学位。1950年后先后在美国伊里诺斯大学教育研究部、加拿大多伦多大学教育学院和安大略教育研究院（ＯＩＳＥ）应用心理学系任教，1968年后在美国纽约市立大学任教，曾在该校师范教育部任研究和评价的主管，后来又在该校的研究生院和大学中心工作过。
奥苏贝尔主要关注学校学习理论的研究，同时在理论医学、临床医学、精神病理学和发展心理学等领域也有研究。他曾在美国心理学会、美国教育协会、美国医学协会、全国科学院农业教育部、白宫吸毒问题研究小组、生物学课程研究委员会等组织里参与工作，并在1976年获美国心理学会颁发的桑代克教育心理学奖。他的主要代表著作有：《自我发展与个性失调（Ego Development and the Personality Disorders）》（1952）、《青少年发展的理论与问题（Theory and Problems of Adolescent Development）》（1954、1977，第二版时与人合作）、《儿童发展的理论与问题（Theory and Problems of Child Development）》（1958）、《意义言语学习心理学（The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning）》（1963）、《教育心理学：一种认知观（Educational Psychology：A Cognitive View）》（1968、1978，第二版时与人合作）、《学校学习：教育心理学导论（School Learning：An Introduction to Educational Psychology）》（1969，与人合作）、《自我心理学与精神障碍（Ego Psychology and Mental Disorder）》（1977，与人合作）。
David P.Ausubel（1918~ current）
David Paul Ausubel was born on October 25, 1918 in Brooklyn, New York.
What works in classrooms was the focus David Ausubel preferred for educational psychology. Ausubel’s research was built on the premise that new learning takes place most effectively when it fits into schemes that already exist in student’s minds. His advocacy of reception learning and expository teaching brought the expression “advance organizers” into the common vocabulary and practice of classroom teachers.
David P. Ausubel came to educational psychology from the field of medicine. He was an assistant surgeon and psychiatric resident with the U.S. Public Health Service and worked in Germany in the medical treatment of displaced persons immediately after World War II. After completing his training in psychiatry, Ausubel entered Columbia University and earned a Ph.D. in developmental psychology.
In 1950 Ausubel accepted a position with the Bureau of Educational Research at the University of Illinois. He remained with the Bureau for the next sixteen years. While Ausubel was at the University of Illinois, he published extensively on cognitive psychology. Ausubel left the University of Illinois in 1966 in order to accept a position with the Department of Applied Psychology, Ontario Institute of Studies in Education. He was in Toronto for two years, 1966-68. He moved to become Professor and Head of the Department of Educational Psychology, Graduate School and University of New York, where he served until his retirement in 1975. When Ausubel retired from university teaching, he returned to the practice of psychiatry at the Rockland Children’s Psychiatric Center.
David P. Ausubel (1918 - ) contributed much to cognitivelearning theory in his explaination of meaningful verbal learning which he sawas the predominant method of classroom learning.
To Ausubel, meaning was aphenomenon of consciousness and not of behavior. The external world acquiresmeaning when it is converted into the "content of consciousness." Hebelieved that a signifier (ie. word) has a meaning when its effect upon thelearner is equivalent to the effect of the object it signifies.
Bruner believedwhen there is "...some form of representational equivalence betweenlanguage (or symbols) and mental content," then there is meaning. Hebelieved there are two processes involved in cognitive learning: the receptionprocess and the discovery process. What he termed receptionprocesses are almost exclusively used in meaningful verbal learning. Concept formation and problem solving are more likely, according to Ausubel, toinvlove discovery processes.
Ausubel felt discovery learning techniques are often uneconomical,inefficient, and ineffective. He felt most school learning is verbal learning(receptive learning).
Subsequent research has shown that verbal learning is most effective forrapid learning and retention and that discovery learning is most effective infacilitating transfer.
3．皮亚杰（Jean Piaget）——心理学家、教育家
皮亚杰(1896—1980)——发生认识论创始人。1896年8月9日皮亚杰生于瑞士的纳沙特尔(Nenchatel)。1918年在纳沙特尔大学得科学博士学位，当年去苏黎世，在烈勃斯(Lipps)和雷舒纳(Wreschner)的心理实验室工作，并在布鲁勒(Bleuler)精神病诊疗所学习精神分析学说。听过荣格(Jung)的讲课，并阅读弗洛伊德(Freud)的书籍。1919年去巴黎大学，听过皮龙(piéron)的讲课，学习病理心理学，并学习科学的逻辑学和哲学。继在巴黎任西蒙(Simon)助手，在一所小学的比纳(Binet)实验室研究儿童心理，受西蒙委托应用勃德(Burt)的推理测验测量巴黎儿童，并进行标准化。1921年皮亚杰获得法国国家科学博士学位，同年经日内瓦大学克拉巴莱德(Claparède)的邀请，皮亚杰由巴黎回到日内瓦，并开始任瑞士日内瓦大学卢梭学院实验室主任。1924年起任日内瓦大学教授。先后当选为瑞士心理学会、法语国家心理科学联合会主席，1929年在日内瓦大学任科学思想史教授，兼卢梭学院助理院长。1940年起任日内瓦大学卢梭学院(现改称教育学院)院长兼实验心理学讲座和心理实验室主任。瑞士成立心理学会，他连任学会主席三年。1954年在加拿大举行的第十四届国际心理学会议，被选为国际心理学会主席。此外，皮亚杰长期担任联合国教科文组织领导下的国际教育局局长和联合国教科文组织总干事之职，还是多国著名大学的名誉博士或名誉教授。皮亚杰学识渊博、贡献卓越，于1968年获得美国心理学会的心理学卓越贡献奖，1977年又获该会桑代克奖以表彰他对教育心理学的贡献。1972年皮亚杰在荷兰获得荣誉地位相当于诺贝尔奖的“伊拉斯姆士”奖金。
皮亚杰早期研究儿童语言和思维等认识的发展。为了致力于研究发生认识论，皮亚杰于1955年在日内瓦创建了“国际发生认识论中心”并任主任，集合各国著名哲学家、心理学家、教育家、逻辑学家、数学家、语言学家和控制论学者研究发生认识论，对于儿童各类概念以及知识形成的过程和发展进行多学科的深入研究。并从此入手，最后创立了发生认识论。
从20世纪30年代开始，把研究成果写成他早期的五本儿童心理学著作。他对自己三个孩子的研究，提供了他创立儿童心理发展理论的重要基础。根据研究结果，写成三本专著，主要论述儿童智慧行为的发生、儿童因果概念和儿童象征行为(模仿和游戏)的开始等问题。1929—1939年的十年期间，坚持研究数学、物理和生物学中主要概念的形成和历史，并在卢梭学院以较大规模从事儿童的动作和思维活动的研究，进行了一系列的实验。1937年在巴黎举行的国际心理学会议上，他提出了关于儿童的具体运算和运算的整体结构的论文。1939—1945年间，从事两方面研究：第一方面，研究儿童到成年期的知觉发展，企图探索知觉与智慧的关系，借以验证格式塔心理学派的论点。第二方面，利用具体的实验技术和分析方法，开始研究儿童的时间、运动和速度概念以及与这些概念有关的行为的发展。1953—1956年在日内瓦先后举行四届儿童发展问题国际讨论会，到会的有英、美、西德、瑞典、瑞土等国的代表，皮亚杰和英海尔德(B．Inhelder)应邀参加会议，并提出了关于儿童心理发展的论文。1955年起，任日内瓦“发生认识论国际研究中心”(Intemational Center of Genetic Epistemoligy)主任。他创立的“发生认识论”主要研究作为知识形成基础的心理结构(即认识结构)和探讨知识发展过程中新知识形成的机制。该中心集合各国著名学者共同研究儿童认识的发生与发展问题，据1970年报道，已出版22卷专著。
Jean Piaget（1896―1980）
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, described logical thinking and reasoning about complex situations as the highest form of cognitive development. He grounded his investigations in the individual child‘s manipulation of and interaction with objects in his or her particular environment. "To present an adequate notion of learning one must first explain how the individual manages to construct and invent, not merely how he repeats and copies."
Jean Piaget‘s main theory
Piaget had a background in both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines influences his theories and research of child development. The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory.
Piaget‘s Model of Learning and Cognitive Development
Over a period of six decades, Jean Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development.
The learning process whereby this development takes place is a cycle of interaction between the individual and the environment. There are four primary cognitive development stages according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operation, and formal operation.
In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), the child is predominately concrete and active in his learning style. Yet the child has few schemes or theories into which he can assimilate events, and as a result, his primary stance toward the world is accommodative. Environment plays a major role in shaping his ideas and intentions. Learning occurs primarily through the association between stimulus and response.
斯金纳（B. F. Skinner）——行为主义心理学家
斯金纳（1904-1990）—— 行为主义学派最负盛名的代表人物，也是世界心理学史上最为著名的心理学家之一，被美国心理学界评为20世纪心理学家中的第一人。直到今天，他的思想在心理学研究、教育和心理治疗中仍然被广为应用。
1904年，斯金纳生于宾夕法尼亚州的一个小镇上，父亲是当地的律师，他从小就爱制作各种小玩艺，成为行为主义心理学家后，又发明并改造了很多动物实验的装置。在中学和大学期间，他曾立志当一名作家，并曾获得希腊文特别奖，他曾经试图进行文学创作，但很快，他就发现无论是自己还是其他作家对人的行为的理解都少得可怜，为了更深入的理解人的行为，他转向了心理学。
在哈佛大学攻读心理学硕士的时候，他受到了行为主义心理学的吸引，成为了一名彻头彻尾的行为主义者，从此开始了他一生的心理学家生涯。他在华生等人的基础上向前迈进了一大步，提出了有别于巴甫洛夫的条件反射的另一种条件反射行为，并将二者做了区分，在此基础上提出了自己的行为主义理论――操作性条件反射理论。他长期致力于研究鸽子和老鼠的操作性条件反射行为，提出了“及时强化”的概念以及强化的时间规律，形成了自己的一套理论。
斯金纳还将操作性条件反射理论应用于对人的研究，他认为，人是没有尊严和自由的，人们做出某种行为，不做出某种行为，只取决于一个影响因素，那就是行为的后果。人并不能自由选择自己的行为，而是根据奖惩来决定自己以何种方式行动，因此，人既没有选择自己行为的自由，也没有任何的尊严，人和动物没有什么两样。 斯金纳还将自己的强化理论推广到教育心理学领域，他提出了一种新型的教育模式，并研制设计出了新型的教学机器。在他的领导之下，新教材开始编制，教学机器也在各大中学校广为应用，一时间在教育界掀起了一场轰轰烈烈的程序教学运动。斯金纳在各个领域推销他的操作性条件反射理论，在心理治疗领域，他提出了塑造行为的行为矫正技术，不断地利用奖惩来塑造人们的行为，促使人们做出好的行为，改变不良行为。现在行为主义学派的行为矫正技术仍然在心理治疗领域广为应用。
斯金纳还提出了自己对理想社会的设想，在其名著《沃尔登第二》一书中，他描述了一个理想的乌托邦似的社会，在这个社会中，孩子从诞生之日起，就通过强化来进行严格的行为形成训练，孩子们要被训练成具有合作精神和社交能力的人，所有的训练都是为了社会全体成员的利益和幸福。这本书在美国极受推崇，大学生们尤其热衷于阅读此书，在美国弗吉尼亚州，甚至还有人真正根据《沃尔登第二》的模式建立起了一个公社。 斯金纳在美国公众中的名声远比在心理学界的名声大得多，一位崇拜者写道：“（斯金纳）是一个神话中的著名人物......科学家英雄，普洛米休斯式的播火者，技艺高超的技术专家......敢于打破偶像的人，不畏权威的人，他解放了我们的思想，从而脱离了古代的局限。”这些话虽然有些夸张，但斯金纳在心理学界的贡献仍然是不可磨灭的。
斯金纳的主要著作有： 《有机体的行为》 （1938）、 《科学和人类行为》（1953）、《言语行为》（1957）、《强化程序》（1957）、《教学技术》（1968）、 《关于行为主义》（1974）、 《超越自由和尊严》（1971）等。
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
B. F. Skinner is considered to be the father of operant conditioning and programmed instruction. He was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania and he did not enter college with the intention of becoming a psychologist, majoring instead of English at Hamilton College in New York. Originally Skinner wanted to become a writer, but his father reluctantly agreed. Subsequently he undertook graduate studies at Harvard and began his research on psychology. Skinner studied at Harvard, and later became a professor of psychology at Harvard from 1931-1936 and 1947-1974.
In Skinner’s article The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, Skinner described the conditions of the classroom to be adverse to learning. He argued that a single teacher can not individually and appropriately reinforce 30 students simultaneously. In this 1954 article, he conceptualized a teaching machine for use in the classroom by individual students. (Seymour Papert too envisioned a teaching machine, The Children’s Machine).
Skinner stated: “When I am asked what I regard as my most important contribution, I always say, ‘the original experimental analysis of operant behavior and its subsequent extension to more and more complex cases”’ (Learning Theories for Teachers). He truly believed the purpose of psychology to be predicting and controlling the behaviour of individual organisms.
Skinner thought that nearly all human behavior is a product of either biological natural selection or psychological operant reinforcement. Skinner believed that there were 2 kinds of learning: operant and respondent, however he placed greater emphasis on operant which he believed was controlled by consequences. He used animals as research subjects studying the reward technique which he later applied to humans. Skinner is a proponent of operant conditioning, and the inventor of the Skinner box for facilitating experimental observations.
1. 夸美纽斯（J. A. Comenius）——近代教育教学理论的奠基人之一
夸美纽斯（1592～1670）——捷克著名教育家，欧洲近代教育理论的探索者。生于磨坊主家庭。10岁时 父母双亡。22岁起就担任一所文法学校的校长、后又曾任“捷克兄弟会”（捷克的一个 民主教派．其成员多为贫苦农民、手工业者 和小商人。）的牧师和主教。他于1632年发表的《大教学论》被称为世界教育史上第一部系统的教育学理论巨著。该书对有关教育 的许多方面进行了系统的理论阐述。由于受到宗教世界观的影响，他对教育目的的看法是矛盾的，一方面他认为教育的目的是使人为来世生活做好准备，另一方面他又认为教育要使人认识和研究世界上的一切事物，培养他们的各种能力、德行和信仰，使他们能享受现世的幸福。他高度评价教育的作用，认为教育不仅是改造社会、建设国家的手段，而且也是发展人的天赋、智力和完善自 身的必经之路。在教育的实施方面，他认为必须坚持教育要适应自然的总原则，同时，他还对教育过程中所要提倡的直观性原则、 学生学习的主动性自觉性原则、教育的系统性和循序渐进性原则、巩固性原则和量力性原则等都做了较全面的论证。在教育管理方 面他的突出贡献在于：他提出了统一学制的建议，把人认出生到24岁分为四个阶段（即婴儿期、儿童期、少年期和青年期，每期为 6年），并提出每个时期所应受的教育及所应上的学校，即母有学校（家教）、国语学校、拉丁学校和大学。他还为每种学校规定了广泛的教育内容。与此同时，他还第一个提出了学年制的主张，要求学校按学年进行招生和学生升级工作，各个学校同时开学，同时放假。他要求学校工作要有计划，每月、每日、每时都要有指定的工作，并且应按时完成这些计划。他还要求实行班级授课制，这对教育发展也是有着深远影响的。他一生著述很多，除了上面提到的以外，还有许多理论著作和教材等，其中主要有：《母育学校》、《泛智的先声》、《论天赋才能的创造》、《组织良好的学校的准则》、《世界图解》等。
Johann Amos Comenius (1592-1670)
Johann Amos Comenius, or Jan Amos Komensky, was born in March 28th , 1592 in Nivnice (Southeastm?hren/ Czech Republic). His father’s dead was in 1602 and his mother’s in the following year. That’s why he moved to his aunt in Stráznice in 1603 and before he went to the latin school in Prerau in 1608, which was finished in 1611. From 1611 till 1614 he studied at the universities of Herborn and Heidelberg. As teacher and principal, he taught and led his “own” latin school from 1614 till 1618. In 1616 he became priest and did his work from 1618 till 1621 as preacher and teacher in Fulnek. Cause of the Thirty Year War, which began in 1618, he had to change his places from 1621 till 1628, where he stood. A new country decree for M?hren was the reason, why he moved in 1628 to Lissa in Poland, where he stayed until 1641. Comenius was also from 1641 till 1642 in London and the Netherlands. From 1642 till 1648 he worked for Sweden and helped for the education reforms, but when he was elected bishop of the university, in the same year, and when the Thirty Year War was finished, he returned to Lissa in 1648. In the following two periods of ten years the Czech theologian and pedagogical reformer had to move very often. In 1650 he left Lissa to Sárospatak for four years and then came for two years to Lissa back. When Lissa was burned in 1656 he was escaping for 14 years to Amsterdam, where he had a quarrel with another theologian in 1669. Finally he died in Amsterdam in November 15th, 1670. Jan Amos Komensky was buried in Naarden, not far from Amsterdam. He supported the Christian education and the reforms of the school (pictures, not the teach of books), especially in the language instruction. He is best known for his contribution about teaching. A century before the Enlightenment, Johann Amos Comenius was a theologian, philosopher and pedagogue who believed that only through education could man achieve his full potential and lead a truly harmonious life. He was one of the founding fathers of modern education, and also a cosmopolitan and universalist who strove incessantly for human rights, peace between the nations, social peace and the unity of mankind. The choice of the name COMENIUS for this part of the SOCRATES programme is a reminder of Europe‘s rich educational heritage.