萨米尔. 阿明:毛泽东主义的贡献(中英文对照)

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This essay was prepared for the June 9-10, 2006 Hong Kong Conference: “The Fortieth Anniversary: Rethinking the Genealogy and Legacy of the Cultural Revolution” sponsored by the China Study Group, Monthly Review, and the Contemporary China Research Center of City University of Hong Kong. It was translated from the French by Shane Mage.
The Second International‘s Marxism, proletarian-and-European-centered, shared with the dominant ideology of that period a linear view of history—a view according to which all societies had first to pass through a stage of capitalist development (a stage whose seeds were being planted by colonialism which, by that very fact, was “historically positive”) before being able to aspire to socialism. The idea that the “development” of some (the dominating centers) and the “underdevelopment” of others (the dominated peripheries) were as inseparable as the two faces of a single coin, both being immanent outcomes of capitalism‘s worldwide expansion, was completely alien to it.
But the polarization inherent to capitalist globalization—a major fact because of its worldwide social and political importance—challenges whatever vision we may have of how to surpass capitalism. This polarization is at the origin of the possibility for large portions of the working classes and above all of the middle classes of the dominant countries (whose development is itself favored by the position of the centers in the world system) to go over to social-colonialism. At the same time it transforms the peripheries into “storm zones” (according to the Chinese expression) in natural and permanent rebellion against the world capitalist order. Certainly, rebellion is not synonymous to revolution—only to the possibility of the latter. Meanwhile, reasons to reject the capitalist model in the center of the system are not lacking either, as 1968, among other things, has shown. To be sure, the formulation of the challenge advanced at a certain time by the Chinese Communist Party—“the countryside encircles the cities”— is by that very fact too extreme to be useful. A global strategy for transition beyond capitalism toward global socialism has to define the interrelationship between struggles in the centers and the peripheries of the system
At first, Lenin distanced himself somewhat from the dominant theory of the Second International and successfully led the revolution in the “weak link” (Russia), but always believing that this revolution would be followed by a wave of socialist revolutions in Europe. This hope was disappointed; Lenin then moved toward a view that gave more importance to the transformation of Eastern rebellions into revolutions. But it was up to the Chinese Communist Party and Mao to systematize that new perspective.
The Russian Revolution had been led by a Party well rooted in the working class and the radical intelligentsia. Its alliance with the peasantry in uniform (first represented by the Socialist Revolutionary Party) ensued naturally. The consequent radical agrarian reform finally fulfilled the old dream of the Russian peasants: to become landowners. But this historic compromise carried within itself the seeds of its own limits: the “market” was, by its own nature, fated, as always, to produce a growing differentiation within the peasantry (the well-known phenomenon of “kulakization”).
The Chinese Revolution, from its origin (or at least from the 1930‘s), unfolded from other bases guaranteeing a solid alliance with the poor and middle peasantry. Meanwhile its national dimension—the war of resistance against Japanese aggression—likewise allowed the front led by the Communists to recruit broadly among the bourgeois classes disappointed by the weaknesses and betrayals of the Kuomintang. The Chinese revolution thus produced a new situation differing from that of post-revolutionary Russia. The radical peasant revolution suppressed the very idea of private property in farmland, and replaced it with a guarantee to all peasants of equal access to farmland. To this very day that decisive advantage, shared by no other country beside Vietnam, constitutes the major obstacle to a devastating expansion of agrarian capitalism. The current discussions in China largely center on this question. I refer the reader to the chapter on China in my book Pour un Monde Multipolaire (Paris, 2005) and my article “Théorie et pratique du projet chinois de socialisme de marché” (Alternatives Sud, vol VIII, N· 1, 2001). But in other respects the going-over of many bourgeois nationalists to the Communist Party would necessarily exert an ideological influence favorable to the support of the deviations of those who Mao termed partisans of the capitalist path (“capitalist-roaders”).
The post-revolutionary regime in China does not merely have to its credit many more-than-significant political, cultural, material and economic accomplishments (industrialization of the country, radicalization of its modern political culture, etc.). Maoist China solved the “peasant problem” that was at the heart of the tragic decline of the Central Empire over two decisive centuries (1750-1950).
I refer here to my book L‘avenir du maoïsme (1981), p. 57. What is more, Maoist China reached these results while avoiding the most tragic deviations of the Soviet Union: collectivization was not imposed by murderous violence as was the case with Stalinism, oppositions within the Party did not give rise to the establishment of a Terror (Deng was put aside, he returned...). The aim of an unparalleled relative equality in income distribution both between the peasants and the workers and within each of those classes and between both and the ruling strata was pursued—of course with highs and lows—tenaciously, and was formalized by choices of development strategy contrasting to those of the U.S.S.R. (these choices were formulated in the “ten great relationships” at the start of the 1960‘s). It is these successes that account for the later developmental successes of post-Maoist China since 1980. The contrast with India, precisely because India had no revolution, thus has the greatest significance not only in accounting for their different trajectories during the decades from 1950 to 1980 but still for those characterizing diverse probable (and/or possible) perspectives for the future. These successes are the explanation for why post-Maoist China, committing its development thenceforward to its “opening” within the new capitalist globalization, was able to avoid destructive shocks similar to those that followed the collapse if the U.S.S.R.
Just the same, Maoism‘s successes did not settle “definitively” (in an “irreversible” fashion) whether China‘s long-term perspectives would work out in a way favorable to socialism. First of all, because the development strategy of the 1950-1980 period had exhausted its potential so that, among other things, an opening (even though a controlled one) was indispensable (cf. L‘avenir du maoïsme, pp 59-60), an opening which involved, as what ensued showed, the risk of reinforcing tendencies evolving toward capitalism. But also because China‘s Maoist system combined contradictory tendencies—toward both the strengthening and weakening of socialist choices.
Aware of this contradiction, Mao tried to bend the stick in favor of socialism by means of a “Cultural Revolution” (from 1966 to 1974). “Bombard the Headquarters” (the Party‘s Central Committee), seat of the bourgeois aspirations of the political class holding the dominant positions. Mao thought that, in order to carry out his course correction, he could base himself on the “Youth” (which, in part, broadly inspired the 1968 events in Europe—consider Godard‘s movie La Chinoise). The course of events showed the error of this judgment. Once the Cultural Revolution had been left behind, the partisans of the capitalist path were encouraged to go over to the offensive.
The combat between the long and difficult socialist path and the capitalist choice now in operation is certainly not “definitively outlived.” As elsewhere in the world, the conflict between the pursuit of capitalist unfolding and the socialist perspective constitutes the true civilizational conflict of our epoch. But in this conflict the Chinese people hold several major assets inherited from the Revolution and from Maoism. These assets are at work in various domains of social life; they show up forcefully, for instance, in the peasantry‘s defense of state property in farmland and of the guarantee that all should have access to farmland.
Maoism has contributed in decisive fashion to ascertaining exactly the stakes in and the challenge represented by globalized capitalist/imperialist expansion. It has allowed us to place in the center of our analysis of this challenge the center/peripheries contrast integral to the expansion, imperialist and polarizing by its very nature, of “really existing” capitalism; and from this to learn all the lessons that this implies for socialist combat both in the dominating centers and the dominated peripheries. These conclusions have been summed up in a fine “Chinese-style” formula: “States want independence, Nations want liberation, and Peoples want revolution.” States—that is, the ruling classes (of all countries in the world whenever they are something other than lackeys, transmission belts for external forces) try to expand their room for manoeuvre in the (capitalist) world system and to lift themselves from the position of passive objects (fated to submit to unilateral adjustment whenever demanded by a dominant imperialism) to that of active subjects participating in the formation of the world order. Nations—that is, historical blocs of potentially progressive classes—want liberation, meaning “development” and “modernization.” Peoples—that is, the dominated and exploited popular classes—aspire to socialism. This formula allows an understanding of the real world in all its complexity, and consequently, the formulation of effective strategies for action. Its place is in a perspective of a long—very long—global transition from capitalism to socialism. As such it breaks with the “short transition” conception of the Third International.
毛泽东主义的贡献
萨米尔?阿明(Samir Amin )着   胡思民 译
本文发表于香港从2006年6月9日至10日由China Study Group, Monthly Review和香港城市大学的当代中国研究中心一同赞助举办的《40年回顾:重新思考文革的历程和遗产》会议。
资本主义的全球扩张必然造成两极分化
第二国际的马克思主义(以无产阶级和欧洲为中心)和当时欧洲主流思想有着共同的历史直线发展观,那就是认为所有的社会都得先经过资本主义阶段才有希望发展社会主义,而因为资本主义的种子是由殖民主义播散到世界各地的,故欧洲殖民主义就历史的发展来说,具有正面的意义。当时的马克思主义完全没有认识到某些地区(支配中心)的“发展”和其它地区(被支配地区)的“欠发展”是一个硬币不可分离的两面,都是资本主义在全世界扩张的必然结果。
但是资本主义全球化所固有的两极分化对全世界的社会和政治都有重大的影响,这个重要的事实对任何想要超越资本主义的构想都是一个严峻的挑战。占支配地位的国家其发展得益于它们在世界体系的中心地位,资本主义世界体系的两极分化是中心国家工人阶级的大部分,尤其是中产阶级,可能倾向社会殖民主义的根源。同时这个两极分化使边缘地区成为自然和永久地反抗世界资本主义秩序的“风暴地带”(借用一个中文表述)。当然,反抗并不等同于革命,只是后者的可能性。同时,在资本主义中心也不乏反抗资本主义模式的因素,1968年的运动尤其证明了这一点。中国共产党在某个时期形成的「农村包围城市」斗争策略,过于极端,无法派上用场。一个超越资本主义转向全球社会主义的全球战略必须明白确定世界体系中心国家的斗争和边缘国家的斗争之间的关系。
中俄两国革命的比较
起初列宁并不很赞同第二国际的主流理论,并且还在离资本主义中心区比较远的俄罗斯这一个脆弱环节领导革命成功,但总认为继俄国革命之后欧洲将会爆发一连串的社会主义革命。期待落空后,列宁转而认为东方殖民地的反帝运动转化为革命更加重要。但这一新的观点靠中国共产党和毛泽东才得以形成有系统的理论。
领导发动俄罗斯十月革命的是扎根于工人阶级和激进知识分子的党组织。随后与原由社会主义革命党代表的农民士兵很自然地联合起来。俄罗斯农民久有自拥土地的心愿,革命后的彻底土地改革,终于圆了他们的梦想。但这个历史性的妥协内在也带有限制自身的种子,「市场」按其本性注定总会在农民内部日益产生分化(即广为人知的富农化现象)。
中国革命从一开始(至少从1930年代起)就从其它的基础确保与贫农和中农的坚强联合。同时,抵抗日本侵略的战争也让中共领导的抗日民族统一战线得以在大小资产阶级中广泛吸收对国民党的软弱和背叛感到失望的人士。中国革命由此呈现了与俄国革命后的不同局面。激进的农民革命压抑了土地私有的观念,并保证凡是农民都有使用土地的权力。到今天为止,这个关键的革命优势(全世界只有越南同样取得了这份革命成果)构成了阻止为祸深重的农业资本主义扩张的重大屏障。目前中国的争论大都集中在这个问题。请读者参考我的《面向一个多极化的世界》(Pour un Monde Multipolaire,2005年出版于巴黎)有关中国的那一章和我一篇题为〈中国迈向社会主义的理论与实验〉(Alternatives Sud, vol VIII, N· 1, 2001)的文章。但是从其它方面来看,众多资产阶级民族主义者入党以后必定对意识形态产生影响,有利于支持那些毛泽东称为走资派的人背离社会主义道路。
毛泽东时代的中国的卓越成就
革命后的中国政权不但在政治、经济、文化和其它领域成就卓越(国家的工业化和中国现代政治文化的彻底变革,等等)。毛泽东主义的中国解决了农民问题,亦即中央帝国在两个关键世纪悲惨衰落的核心问题(1750-1950)。
请参考我写的《毛泽东主义的道路》(L‘avenir du maoïsme,1981) 第57页。不仅如此,毛泽东时代的中国取得这些成就,却避免了苏联犯下的一些惨痛的错误:农业集体化没有像斯大林主义那样用凶残的暴力强制,中共并没有因为党内反对派的出现而实行恐怖统治(邓小平只被解职靠边站了,后来又复出掌权)。毛时代的中国坚决执行在工农之间,在工人内部以及农民内部,以及在工农与统治阶层之间,收入分配方面无与伦比的相对平等,并且通过选择与苏联相反的发展策略将之形成制度(这些发展策略形成于1960年代初期毛泽东的《论十大关系》里)〔编按:毛泽东《论十大关系》的讲话发表于1956年4月25日,不是1960年代初期〕;正是这些成就构成了1980年以来后毛时代的中国发展有成的原因。与印度相较,就因印度没经历过革命的洗礼,这项因素不仅对解释两国从1950至1980年之间的不同发展轨道,也对解释将来构成两国歧异的可能前景的特点,具有最关紧要的意义。这些成绩也说明了为什么后毛时代的中国把发展付诸向新一波的资本主义全球化开放,能免于遭逢像苏联崩溃后的毁灭性震荡。
但是同样地,毛主义的成就也没能“确定无疑地”(即无可逆转地)解决中国长远的前景会否朝向有利于社会主义发展的问题。第一是因为1950至1980年之间的发展战略已耗尽了潜力。开放,即使是有管制的开放,已不得不然(参看《毛泽东主义的道路》,59-60页),如随后所显现的,开放必然会有加强朝向资本主义演变的风险。其二是中国的毛主义制度包含了两个矛盾的倾向,那就是既强化又削弱人们对社会主义的拥护。
毛泽东意识到矛盾所在,力图以发动文化革命(1966-1974)来强化有利于社会主义的发展;他鼓动人们“炮打司令部[党中央]”,而中央就是有资产阶级倾向的当权派的所在地。毛以为他能依靠青年来协助他纠正路线(这也部分鼓舞了1968年发生于欧洲的青年造反运动―― 请参看哥达德(Godard)一部叫《中国人》的电影]。事情的发展证明了毛的判断是错误的。一旦文化革命结束,走资本主义道路的当权派就士气大振乘机反攻倒算了。
“国家要独立,民族要解放,人民要革命”
中国漫长而艰巨的社会主义道路和目前当道的资本主义路线之间的斗争当然尚未决出最后的胜负。就像世界其它地区一样,持续扩展资本主义与不懈力求实现社会主义的斗争构成我们当代真正的文明冲突。在此斗争中,中国人民从文革和毛泽东主义继承了一些重要的遗产。这些遗产在社会生活的各个层面发生作用,有力地表现在像农民维护农地的国有财产和确保人人有权使用农地上。
毛泽东主义的贡献在于以极具关键意义的方式明确无误地弄清了在全球扩张的资本主义 /帝国主义中的重大利害关系所在及其带来的挑战。“确实存在的”资本主义的扩张具有帝国主义和造成两极分化的本性,中心/边缘的对比是其不可分割的一环,毛泽东主义使我们可以把中心/边缘的对比放置在我们对资本主义全球扩张的挑战的分析的中心,并从中学习我们在中心国家和边缘国家的社会主义斗争所需要的所有教训。这些结论已概括在一句“中国风格”的名言中:“国家要独立,民族要解放,人民要革命”。国家,指世界上所有国家中不充当外国势力走狗、买办的统治阶级,都想要在(资本主义)世界体系里扩展他们能机动伸展的余地,并从注定要屈服于支配的帝国主义国家片面安排的被动客体,提升为参与塑造世界秩序的主动主体。民族是指历史上有进步倾向的阶级以及阶层集团,他们要解放就是指“发展”和“现代化”。人民是指被压迫和剥削的各人民阶级,他们要社会主义。这一表述能让人们洞悉错综复杂的真实世界,从而能够制订出有效的行动策略。毛泽东主义立足于全球从资本主义向社会主义过渡是个长远─非常长远─过程的观点。因此,这种历史观与第三国际“短暂过渡”的观念彻底决裂。(完)
“国家要独立,民族要解放,人民要革命,已成为不抗拒 的历史潮流”
「中国方面声明,哪里有压迫,哪里就有反抗。国家要独立,民族要解放,人民要革命,已成为不抗拒 的历史潮流。国家不分大小,应该一律平等,大国不 应欺负小国,强国不应欺负弱国。中国决不做超级大 国,并且反对任何霸权主义和强权政治。
中国方面表示:坚决支持一切被压迫人民和被压 迫民族争取自由、解决的斗争;各国人民有权按照自 己的意愿,选择本国的社会制度,有权维护本国独立、主权和领土完整,反对外来侵略、干涉、控制和颠 覆。一切外国军队都应撤回本国去。中国方面表示: 坚决支持越南、老挝、柬埔寨三国人民为实现自己的目标所作的努力,坚决支持越南南方共和临时革命政 府的七点建议以及在今年二月对其中两个关键问题的 说明和印度支那人民最高级会议联合声明;坚决支持朝鲜民主主义人民共和国政府一九七一年四月十二日 提出的朝鲜和平统一的八点方案和取消「联合国韩国 统一复兴委员会」的主张;坚决反对日本军国主义的复活和对外扩张,坚决支持日本人民要求建立一个独 立、民主、和平和中立的日本的愿望,坚决主张印度 和巴基斯坦按照联合国关于印巴问题的决议,立即把自己的军队全部撤回到本国境内以及查谟和克什米尔 停火线的各自一方,坚求支持巴基斯坦政府和人民维 护独立、主权的斗争以及查谟和克什米尔人民争取自决权的斗争。」──中华人民共和国和美利坚合众国联合公报(“上海公报”)(1972年2月28日)
中国发展道路的贡献
[埃及]萨米尔·阿明著 丁海摘译
2006年9月12日美国http://www.counterpunch.org网站刊登了依附理论的代表人物萨米尔·阿明题为《中国发展道路的贡献》一文。文章结合国际共运史和第三世界发展史,探讨了毛泽东开创的在落后国家成功赢得解放和发展的道路至今具有的巨大意义。文章主要内容如下。
第二国际的马克思主义是以无产阶级和欧洲为中心的,它和当时主导性的意识形态具有相同的线性历史观:根据这种欧洲中心的线性历史观,所有的社会将不得不先经过资本主义阶段(这个阶段实际上和殖民主义直接相关,但是在第二国际的马克思主义看来,这也是有历史性的积极意义的),然后才追求社会主义。第二国际的马克思主义和如下这种观念大相径庭:支配性的中心区域的发展和被支配的边缘区域的不发展是一个硬币的不可分割的两面,这是资本主义世界性扩张的内在结果。
资本主义全球化所固有的两极分化(这是它在世界范围的政治和经济影响导致的主要后果)对我们所提出的任何超越资本主义的蓝图提出了挑战。两极分化使中心国家(它们的发展本身受益于它们在世界体系中的中心地位)的工人阶级特别是中产阶级的大部分可以过上较好的生活,从而走向社会一殖民主义。同时,它把边缘地区转化为动荡区域,边缘地区自然并永久地反叛世界资本主义秩序。当然,反叛并不等同于革命,它只是给革命提供了可能性。同时,在中心地区也不缺少拒绝资本主义的理由,就像:1968年的各种运动所展示的一样。但是,中国共产党在特定时期形成的公式——农村包围城市,对于中心区域的运动来说,就太过极端而显得无用了。要发展出超越资本主义而走向全球社会主义的全球战略,不得不弄清楚世界体系的中心和边缘之间的斗争关系。
从一开始,列宁就在一定程度上和第二国际的主流理论保持了距离,从而成功地在薄弱环节(俄国)领导了革命,但是他总是相信欧洲在这一革命之后将会发生一波社会主义革命浪潮。这一希望落空了,列宁于是转而更多地关注将东欧的反叛转化为革命。但是直至中国革命和毛泽东,列宁这一视角才被系统化。
俄国革命是由一个牢固扎根于工人阶级和激进知识分子之中的党所领导的。它和农民的联盟是很自然的。后来的激进土地改革最终满足了俄国农民的古老梦想:成为土地所有者。但是这一历史妥协自身带有它的局限:从市场的本性来看,它总是在农民中产生越来越严重的阶级分化。
中国革命从一开始(或者至少从20世纪30年代开始)就是在和贫下中农的牢固联盟中展开的,这和俄国很不同。同时民族危机即抵抗日本入侵,使中国共产党领导的统一战线能够在对国民党的软弱和背叛大为失望的资产阶级中找到同盟者。这样中国革命就创造了和革命后的俄国很不同的状况。激进的农民革命打消了土地私有的想法,而代之以所有农民都平等拥有土地。直至今天,除了越南,只有中国实行农民平等拥有土地的制度,而不是农业资本主义,这是中国和世界资本主义国家或后社会主义国家极不相同的地方,但是对于这一点,左翼和右翼学者在观察中国时都同样地忽视了。当然。关于中国当前土地的所有制模式是否应该改革正成为中国意识形态争论的中心问题之一。革命成功后的中国值得赞扬,不仅仅是因为其取得的具有巨大意义的政治、文化、物质和经济成就(国家完成了工业化,并使社会文化现代化了),而且因为其解决了农民问题,这一问题是这个中央帝国在决定性的两个世纪(1750一1950)中严重衰落的根本原因。
中国取得了这些巨大成就,却同时避免了苏联那样的严重偏差:农业集体化不是通过巨大暴力性强制实现的,党内能更多地容忍不同的声音,社会特权现象没有苏联那么严重。更为重要的是,中国的发展道路和苏联模式有很大的不同,从20世纪60年代的《论十大关系》开始,中国就开始有意识地探索自己的发展道路。正是这些成功的探索为1980年以后中国的成功发展奠定了坚实的基础,从而当中国在新的资本主义全球化险恶环境中实行开放政策时,没有遭遇苏联向西方开放所带来的那样的崩溃。中国发展道路的意义在今天仍然极其重要。当前,中国一定要保持农民平等拥有土地的制度,中国农民也一定会有巨大的潜力保卫这一制度。
毛泽东以决定性的方式明确了这样的道理:资本主义、帝国主义的全球扩张将产生巨大的挑战和生死攸关的风险。只有毛泽东最深刻地认识到资本主义、帝国主义的全球扩张给边缘国家所带来的危机最主要的表现就是农业危机的深重性,因此他在中国革命和发展道路上所作出的种种不同于第二国际马克思主义的探索,是基于中心国家和边缘国家情况的强烈对比这一认识之上的。这使我们将中心和边缘的强烈对比——这是现存资本主义扩张(这种扩张的本质必然是帝国主义的,而且必然带来两极分化)的必然结果——作为我们对这种挑战的分析的中心。中心和边缘国家争取社会主义的战斗都应该对这一明显不同和对比获得深刻的认识。
我们可以把我们的结论作如下概括。那些不愿意充当奴仆、不愿意充当外部力量的传送带的边缘国家的领导阶级应该尽力扩大它们国家在资本主义世界体系中的空间,将它们的国家从被动的客体地位(它们随时得屈从和调整,以满足支配性的帝国主义的要求)提升为参与世界秩序形成的积极的主体,必须争取实现发展和现代化。被统治和被剥削的人民大众要努力争取社会主义。这些结论必须考虑到真实世界的复杂性,以形成一个有效的行动战略。这一战略必须基于这样的认识:资本主义、帝国主义的全球扩张产生的挑战将是严重而持久的,中心国家和边缘国家的反抗和超越资本主义的斗争也将很不相同。因此,它和第三国际的短期过渡论不同,它是从这样的一个视角出发的:从资本主义向社会主义的全球性转变是一个很长的过程。
(原载《国外理论动态》2006年第11期)
在六十年代,有那么一段时间,世上万事都变得可能,换句话说,那个阶段是全人类大解放的时机,也是全球性能量大释放的时候。就这一点来说,毛泽东对这个进程所作的比喻最发人深省:“我们这个民族”,他大声疾呼,“就像一颗原子……一旦里面的核子被撞碎,其释放的热量将会产生巨大无比的力量。”在文革中,这个意象促使了旧时封建与乡村结构的粉碎,同时也促使了那些结构中旧习俗神奇般地消除,进而唤起了一场真正的群众民主运动。——弗里德里克·杰姆逊