专门替中国人写的英语语法

第一章　英文文法的最基本规则
英文和我们中文最大的不同，是在动词，我们中文的动词很简单，没有所谓的第几人称，也没有复数和单数之分，更没有过去式或进行式，英文可不同了，凡是用动词的时候，必须注意很多很多的规则，一旦弄错了，常常是犯了大错。
在这一章，我要将英文最基本的规则一一列下。这些规则都是我们中国人所常常不注意的。
为了不要误导读者，凡本书内错误的句子前面都有〝＊〞的符号。
规则（１）：两个动词是不能联在一起用的。
在中文，我们常说“我是爱你的”，翻成英文，这就变成了
＊ I am love you.
滑稽的是，这句英文句子犯了大忌，因为〝am〞是动词，〝love〞也是动词，两个动词是不能联在一起用的。这句话的正确说法是：
I love you. 或者 I am in love with you.
我们中国人也会说〝我喜欢看电视〞，翻成英文，这变成
＊ I love watch television.
这个句子也犯了同样的错。
以下几个句子都是错的，因为这些句子中都有两个动词连在一起的情形：
＊ I hate eat fish.
＊ I love play basketball.
＊ I love swim.
如果你一定要讲“我爱游泳”，怎么办呢？请看以下的规则。
规则（２）：如一定要同时用两个动词，后者的前面必须加“to”或者将后者加入“ing”。
“我爱游泳”，因此有两种正确的译法：
I love to swim.
I love swimming.
以下的句子都是正确的：
I hate to eat fish.
I hate eating fish.
I love to play basketball.
I love playing basketball
I keep going to church.
规则（３）：主词如果是第三人称，现在式及单数，动词必须加s.
我们中国人最不容易记得的规则，恐怕就是这一条了，以下的句子都是错的。
＊ He write very well.
＊ Jack love playing the violin.
＊ Mary swim every day.
正确的句子是：
He writes very well.
Jack loves playing the violin.
Mary swims every day.
规则（４）：绝大多数的否定的句子，不能直接加“not”。
我们中文对否定语气，规则极为简单，我们可以说“我不爱你”，但是我们不能说
＊ I not love you.
我们也不能说：
＊ I not saw that movie.
＊ I not like swimming.
＊ He not likes playing violin.
我们必须用一种助动词来完成否定的句子，以下才是正确的否定句子：
I do not love you.
I did not see that movie.
He does not like playing violin.
请注意，在以上的句子中，do和did都是助动词，do是现在式，did是过去式。
关于现在式和过去式，究竟是怎么一回事，以后我们会解释清楚的。
助动词不限于“do”和它的变型，can、will、would、shall、may、must等等都是助动词，因此，以下的英文句子又都是对的：
He can not swim.
They will not go to church tomorrow.
Mary should not go to the party.
I shall not see you.
He may not go out tonight.
He must not eat meat any more.
规则（５）：在不定词“to”的后面，必须用原形动词
英文中的动词，是会变化的，以have为例，第一人称和第三人就不同：
I have a dog.
He has a dog.
如果是过去式，动词又要变化。have的过去式是had，不论第几人称，一概都要用had。
几乎每一个英文动词的过去式都有变化，以下是几个例子：
现在式
过去式
go
went
come
came
eat
ate
play
played
swim
swam
不论那一个动词，都有一个原形动词，一切都是从这个原形动词变出来的，像go、drink、have、walk、love、like等等都是原形动词。
如果我们有必要要用不定词to，就必须用原形动词，例如to go、to drink、to have，都是正确的，＊to went；＊to drank；＊to loved等等都是错的。
英文中有一个动词最为麻烦，那就是am、are、is、was、were等等，翻译成中文，这都是，而这些动词的来源都是be，所以我们说这些动词都是verb to be。
以下的句子都用上了〝be〞
I want to be a teacher.
He wants to be a good father.
They all love to be rich.
No one likes to be poor.
规则（６）：英文中有所谓的助动词。必须注意
英文中有很多动词都是助词动，在规则（４）中，我们说在绝大多数的否定语句中，必须用助动词do或did。Do是原形动词，did 和does都是do的变形。
除了do是助动词以外，can、may、might、will、would、must也都是助动词。
以上所提到的助动词，都有一个共同的特色，那就是这些助动词后的动词必须是原形动词，以下的句子都是正确的：
He can swim.
He does not swim.
I do not speak English.
You must walk to work every day.
I did not work yesterday.
You may leave now.
I will go to Taipei tomorrow.
以下的句子都是错的：
＊ I did not went.
＊ He does not goes to work.
＊ You must walked to work.
除了以上的助动词以外，还有一个非常特殊的助动词，那就是have，在这个助动词的后面，动词绝对不能用原形动词，以下是用这个助动词的例子：
I have been to England.
I have slept all day.
I have studied English since I was a child.
been、slept 和studied都是过去分词（past participle），以下的句子也都是现在完成式，我们后讨论完成式的时候，会将这些解释清楚的。
规则（７）：英文问句要有助动词
我们先看看以下的英文句子，这些都是错的：
＊ How many books you wrote？
＊ How many sons you have？
正确的句子是：
Why do you drink so much water？
How many books did you write？
How many sons do you have？
绝大多数的英文问句子是一定要有助动词，以下全是正确的英文问句，你可以看出每一句的助动词吗？
Do you love me？
Did you go to school yesterday？
How many books do you have？
How much money does he have？
Why don’t you go back home？
Do you like to swim？
Can you play violin？
Will you go home tomorrow？
Would you give me a call？
当然啦，一旦动词是verb to be，我们又不需要助动词了，以下都是正确的英文问句：
Are you a teacher?
Is he a student?
Is Mr. Chang your father?
Were your mother and father in England last year?
规则（８）：特殊动词随主词的变化
英文中，有些动词因主词不同而改变，verb to be是其中之一，因此，我们必须记得以下的规则：
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
现在式
单数
I am
You are
（He，She，It）is
复数
We are
You are
They are
过去式
单数
I was
You were
（He，She，It）was
复数
We were
You were
They were
Verb to have也有类似的变化：
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
现在式
单数
I have
You have
（He，She，It）has
复数
We have
You have
They have
过去式
单数
I had
You had
（He，She，It）had
复数
We had
You had
They had
【练习一】
以下的句子都有错，请将正确的句子写出来：
1.＊ I am like my parent.
2.＊ He is loves his teacher.
3.＊ He keeps swim every day.
4.＊ He wants drink a glass of water.
5.＊ He likes play violin.
6.＊ Jack do not love mathematics.
7.＊ Mary hate singing.
8.＊ My mother cook very good food.
9.＊ He want me to see him tomorrow.
10.＊ He not knows my name.
11.＊ I not like you.
12.＊ He not like swimming.
13.＊ You not went home.
14.＊ I not like swimming.
15.＊ I wanted to went to my mother’s home.
16.＊ I do not like to swimming.
17.＊ I did not ate dinner.
18.＊ I will not went home.
19.＊ He did not went home.
20.＊ You may leaving now.
21.＊ He can swimming.
22.＊ He does not goes to work.
第二章　现在式和现在进行式
2§1 现在式
英文中，现在式（present tense）好像是最容易的，其实现在式都是我们常常用错的时式。
首先，我们不妨举一个例子来说明我们对现在式惯有的误解，假设我们要说〝我在吃午饭〞，这总该用现在式了吧。很多人将这句话翻成
I eat lunch.
这就错了，因为〝I eat lunch.〞的意思并不是〝我在吃午饭〞，而是〝我有吃午饭的习惯〞，意思是说，有人中午不吃午饭（可能是在减肥），我可是每天中午都会吃午饭的。
〝我在吃午饭〞，应该要用现在进行式，这是我们以后会谈的。
现在式不是指任何一个行为，而是一种状况。举例来说，以下几句话都应该用现在式：
我是一个学生
I am a student.
他是一个老师
He is a teacher.
他每天游泳
He swims every day.
汤姆勤奋工作
Tom works hard
他早起
He gets up early.
玛莉喜欢看电影
Mary loves watching movies.
这里常常下雨
It rains often here.
我每天喝一杯牛奶
I drink a glass of milk every day.
我是中国人
I am a Chinese.
他会讲英文
He speaks English.
他有喝茶的习惯
He drinks tea.
我骑脚踏车上学
I ride a bicycle to school.
他搭乘公车上班
He rides a bus to go to work.
我不喜欢你
I do not like you.
他爱他的太太
He loves his wife.
他守法
He obeys the law.
我不喜欢莎士比亚
I do not like Shakespeare.
他不抽烟
He does not smoke.
他喝酒
He drinks.
他唱歌唱得很好
He sings well.
他跳舞跳得很好
He dances well.
他不会游泳
He can not swim.
他不是一个好学生
He is not a good student.
他们都很懒
They are all very lazy.
凡是真理，自然界的现象，数学里的定理，都要用现在式：
太阳从东方升起
The sun rises in the east.
地球是圆的
The earth is round.
月亮是地球的一个卫星
The moon is a satellite of the earth.
美国是一个大的国家
America is a large country.
在北极的夏天，太阳永不落下
The sun never sets at the North Pole in summer.
树叶吸收二氧化碳
Tree leaves absorb CO2 .
计算机的基本原理是布尔代数
The basic principle of computers is Boolean algebra
二点决定一线
Two points define a line.
三点决定一平面
Three points define a plane.
三基本颜色是红、黄、蓝
Three of the basic colors are red, yellow and blue.
【练习二】
将以下中文句子翻成英文，都用现在式。
1.他是一个好学生。
2.我的哥哥17岁。
3.我弟弟每天游泳。
4.他们都喜欢音乐。
5.他们现在在日本。
6.喜玛拉雅山是全世界最高的山。
7.亚马孙河是全世界最长的。
8.他的爸爸是位老师。
9.我们都喜欢中国菜。
10.他不喜欢冰淇淋。
11.我爱你。
12.每个人都怕蛇。
13.每个人都喜欢狗。
14.今天真冷。
2§2 现在进行式
假如我们正在做一件事，是不能用现在式的，而必须用现在进行式，现在进行式的形态是：
verb to be + present participle（现在分词）
verb to be 大家都懂，什么叫做现在分词呢？现在分词就是
动词＋ing
以下是现在分词的例子
动词
现在分词
work
working
go
going
read
reading
run
running
play
playing
swim
swimming
sing
singing
write
writing
eat
eating
walk
walking
come
coming
love
loving
like
liking
watch
watching
smoke
smoking
如果我们说
I am watching a movie.
那是指我现在正在看电影，这和
I watch movies.
意义上截然不同的，I watch movies是说我有看电影的习惯。
因此有些动词是没有现在进行式的，举例来说
I am loving you.
是不通的，因为严格说起来，love是一种状态，而不是一个动作。现在进行式，都是指动作，很少指状态的。
以下是现在进行式的例子：
I am calling my father.
He is swimming now.
He is playing basketball.
They are all eating now.
He is walking in the woods now.
He is reading a detective novel.
Mr. Brown is driving to work.
Mrs. Brown is cooking.
It is raining now.
【练习三】
将以下句子译成英文，都用现在进行式：
1.他在看电影。
2.我在游泳。
3.她在和她妈妈打电话。
4.他的哥哥在散步。
5.我现在正在吃饭。
6.我们在唱歌。
7.他在弹钢琴。
8.他在看一本小说。
9.我在写一封信。
10.他在跑步。
【练习四】
将下列句子译成英文，有的用现在式，有的用现在进行式：
1.我爱你。
2.我正在吃饭。
3.他不是一个学生。
4.我是一个老师。
5.他正在唱歌。
6.他在游泳。
7.他喜欢游泳。
8.他会唱歌。
9.他正在唱歌。
10.他的爸爸是一个医生。
11.他的爸爸在美国。
12.我正在洗澡。
13.他正在睡觉。
14.你的姊姊在骑脚踏车。
15.你的姊姊每天骑脚踏车上学。
第三章　过去式和过去进行式
3§1 过去式
过去式是指过去所发生的事，举例来说，假如我昨天去看了一场电影，我就可以说
I went to see a movie yesterday.
以下全部是正确的句子：
I saw your father last night.
I met your son last month.
I ate three apples this morning.
He went to church to pray last night.
可是，我们必须非常小心，因为一不小心，我们就可能犯了大错，我们如果要向情侣表示爱情，当然说
I love you.
如果我们说
I loved you.
事情就可能闹大了，因为这表示我过去曾经爱过你，可是现在已经不爱了。〝I loved you〞等于是〝I loved you before. But I do not love you now.〞
假如我们看过一个小男孩然后我们说
He was a good boy.
那就是说他现在已不是一个好男孩了，变成了一个不乖的孩子，或者他已经死了。
英文里的过去式常常是侦探用来破案的线索。有一次，有一个母亲，向警察报案，说她的女儿失踪了，她在记者面前，声泪俱下地说
She was such a nice girl.
警察马上觉得这位母亲有问题，因为她不该用过去式的，用了过去式，表示女儿已经死了，可是母亲不是说她失踪了吗？为什么她用过去式，极有可能因为她知道她女儿已经死了，才脱口而出，用了过去式。警察因此怀疑母亲本人就是凶手，事实也果真如此：这位母亲打自己的女儿，出手太重，将女儿打死了，谎报女儿失踪，她用了过去式，使警察知道她有问题。整个案子的侦破，就在于过去式。
我们因此不能轻易用过去式，但我们也千万要注意，该用过去式的时候，一定要用过去式，以下句子都是错的：
＊I go to school yesterday.
＊I see a movie last night.
＊My mother comes to see me last month.
＊I eat three apples this morning.
＊He is happy yesterday.
以上句子的正确写法是：
I went to school yesterday.
I saw a movie last night.
My mother came to see me last month.
I ate three apples this morning.
He was happy yesterday.
【练习五】
将以下中文句子翻成英文，全部用过去式：
1.我昨天参加了一个舞会。
2.他的哥哥昨天打电话给我。
3.我去年到美国去。
4.昨夜我遇到你的姊姊。
5.我写了一封信给你。
6.我今晨吃了一个蛋。
7.他昨夜整夜跳舞。
8.我们昨天跑了五千公尺。
9.他昨夜非常疲倦。
10.他昨夜去台北探访他的爸爸。
【练习六】
将下列的句子译成英文句子，有的用现在式，有的用过去式：
1.他是一个强壮的男孩。
2.他昨天生病了。
3.他每天吃一个苹果。
4.他昨天吃了三个苹果。
5.我喜欢看电影。
6.我是个快乐的人。
7.昨天我看了两场电影。
8.他昨天寄了一封信给你。
9.他常常抽烟。
10.我每天读圣经。
11.他昨天没有念圣经。
12.他昨天没有游泳。
【练习七】
将以下句子译成英文，用现在式，现在进行式或过去式：
1.他在打篮球。
2.他喜欢打篮球。
3.他昨天打篮球。
4.他每天骑脚踏车上学。
5.他昨天骑脚踏车到乡下去。
6.我喜欢唱歌。
7.他正在唱歌。
8.你的爸爸昨天来看我。
9.他的哥哥每天步行二公里。
10.他的弟弟是个好孩子。
11.他去年非常虚弱。
12.他正在打电话。
13.他每天都努力工作（work hard）。
14.你的弟弟喜欢游泳。
15.他过去是个好学生。
3§2 过去进行式
过去进行式和现在进行式有点类似，只是verb to be要用过去式的。可是有一点不同，过去进行式，很少单独用的，而常和另一句子一齐用。举例来说以下的中文句子：
我昨天去看你的时候，你正在打篮球，如译成中文，就是
You were playing basketball when I went to see you yesterday.
以下是典型的过去进行式用法
I was taking a bath when you called.
I was watching TV when you came to see me.
They were dancing when the teacher came in.
They were singing in the station when the train arrived.
Mr. Brown was cleaning his house when his son came home.
总而言之，过去进行式通常牵涉到几件事，这两件事同时发生，其中一件事用过去式，另一件事用过去进行式
【练习八】
将以下句子译成英文，其中一部份使用过去进行式：
1.他昨天到学校去的时候，天在下雨。
2.当火车停下的时候，他在看报（read newspaper）。
3.当火车进站的时候，他们在唱歌。
4.我昨天去他家的时候，他在和他爸爸打电话。
5.昨天晚上八点钟，我在家看电视。
6.当我爸爸昨晚打电话给我的时候，我正在刷牙（brush my teeth）。
7.当我昨晚打电话给他时，他在游泳。
8.当这猫走进来的时候，那只狗在睡觉。
9.当他弟弟回家的时候，他在拉小提琴。
10.当我爸爸回家的时候，我妈妈在烧饭。
【练习九】
填充
1. I （be） a Christian.
2. He （be） a Catholic when he was a child.
3. I （go） to see my mother yesterday.
4. I （like） to play piano.
5. He （eat） now.
6. It （rain） now.
7. He （walk） to school every day.
8. He （walk） now.
9. He （be） a good boy.
10. He （swim） when I called him.
11. He （go） to see his mother yesterday.
12. I （take） a bath when my mother called me.
13. I （like） to swim.
14. I （like） to swim when I was young. Now, I don’t because I am too old.
15. It （rain） now.
16. It （rain） when I drove to work yesterday.
17. It （rain） last night.
18. It （rain）very often here.
19. He （read） a book when I went to see him yesterday.
20. I （be） a student when I was young. Now I am a teacher.
【练习十】
改正以下句子的错误
1. ＊They are driving when I went to see them yesterday.
2. ＊It rained here very often in Taipei.
3. ＊He gives his book to his brother last month.
4. ＊He go to work every morning.
5. ＊He likes to told stories.
6. ＊I like to went to church.
7. ＊The sun sets now.
8. ＊They are play the piano now.
9. ＊I am love you.
10. ＊He were a good student before.
11. ＊He goes to church last Sunday.
12. ＊It rains last night.
13. ＊I am playing when you called.
14. ＊It is raining when I drove to work last night.
15. ＊He do not know me.
16. ＊I were swimming when my mother came.
17. ＊They is singing now.
18. ＊He do not like to swim.
19. ＊He always wear a black coat.
20. ＊He is watch TV now.
第四章　完成式（Perfect Tense）
4§1 现在完成式（Present Perfect Tense）
完成式的形式是 verb to have + past participle，每一个动词，都有过去式和过去分词，以下就是一些例子：
原式
过去式
过去分词（past participle）
go
went
gone
come
came
come
see
saw
seen
do
did
done
watch
watched
watched
get
got
gotten（或got）
have
had
had
use
used
used
buy
bought
bought
listen
listened
listened
draw
drew
drawn
paint
painted
painted
leave
left
left
arrive
arrived
arrived
dance
danced
danced
kill
killed
killed
write
wrote
written
run
ran
run
swim
swam
swum
snow
snowed
snowed
eat
ate
eaten
love
loved
loved
fly
flew
flown
spread
spread
spread
hit
hit
hit
drink
drank
drunk
take
took
taken
grow
grew
grown
sell
sold
sold
ride
rode
ridden
steal
stole
stolen
break
broke
broken
walk
walked
walked
read
read
read
sing
sang
sung
work
worked
worked
以下的句子都是用了现在完成式：
I have read this book.
I have seen the movie.
I have lived here since 1973.
I have studied English for a long time.
He has washed his hands.
He has left.
He has already completed the report.
The storm has arrived.
I have taken the job.
I have written the letters.
I have not seen him since 1975.
I have never seen this man before.
什么情况之下要用现在完成式呢？
1. 首先假设我们有一件事，发生在过去，而一直延续到现在，就要用现在完成式，这种句子后面常有since或for。以下是这种情形的例子：
（1）自从1963年，我一直在念英文。
I have studied English since 1963.
（2）自从1975年以后，我就住在这里。
I have lived here since 1975.
（3）自从我是一个小孩子，我就喜欢摇滚乐。
I have loved rock and roll music since I was a child.
（4）自从去年，我就从来没有见过他。
Since last year, I have never seen him.
（5）自从1950年以后，他就一直在此工作。
He has worked here since 1950.
（6）我认识他已经很久了。
I have known him for a long time.
（7）他练习网球已经四年了。
He has already practiced tennis for （the past） four years.
（8）我穿这件夹克很久了。
I have worn this jacket for a very long time.
（9）我开这辆汽车很久了。
I have driven this car for a long time.
（10）好久没有下雨了。
It has not rained for a long time.
2.使用现在完成式的另一情况是强调已经完成的事，比方说，你说〝我已经写了那封信〞，就可以用现在完成式，或者，你说〝他已经完成了工作〞。以下是这类的例子：
（1）我已经写了这封信。
I have already written the letter.
（2）他已经完成了工作。
He has already completed the work.
（3）我已经测试了这个程序。
I have already tested the program.
（4）我已经收到了你的信。
I have already received your letter.
（5）他已搬到了一个较大的房子。
He has already moved to a bigger house.
（6）虽然他很年轻，但他已写了三本小说。
Although he is young, he has already written three novels.
（7）我打了二次电话给他，他都没有回答。
I called him twice, he has never answered.
3.现在完成式用来表示一种经验，举例来说，〝我曾经到过美国〞、〝我曾见过李总统〞、〝我有生以来没有跳过舞〞，这些都应该用现在完成式，例如：
（1） 我曾经到过美国。
I have been to America.
（2） 我曾见过李总统。
I have seen President Lee.
（3） 我有生以来没有跳过舞。
I have never danced in my life.
（4） 我看过〝双城记〞。
I have read The Tale of Two Cities.
（5） 他曾吃过这种冰淇淋。
He has tasted this kind of ice cream.
（6） 我未曾见过雪。
I have never seen snow.
（7） 你曾见过雪吗？
Have you ever seen snow?
（8） 你登过玉山吗？
Have you ever climbed Jade Mountain？
4.现在完成式可以用来表示一件过去常发生的事：
（1） 今年我国已有二次台风。
We have already had two typhoons so far this year.
（2） 他今年已发表了三篇论文。
He has already published three papers this year.
（3） 过去一年，我看了三次〝铁达尼号〞。
In the past year, I have seen The Titanic three times.
对读者而言，最重要的是〝现在完成式〞和〝过去式〞不同究竟在那里？最重要的不同在于，一旦在句子中讲一件过去发生的事，而且指定特定的时间，就一定要用〝过去式〞，而不能用〝现在完成式〞。比方说，〝我曾经看过「铁达尼号」〞，可以用现在完成式，因为这句话没有指明任何特定的时间，假如说，〝我昨天晚上去看「铁达尼号」〞，就一定用过去式，读者不妨看看以下的比较：
（a）I went to America last year.
I have been to America.
（b）I saw The Titanic last year.
I have seen The Titanic twice.
（c）I finished my homework late last night.
I have finally finished my homework.
（d）I studied English when I was a small child.
I have studied English since I was a child.
（e）I went to church yesterday.
I have never been to church.
以下的句子是错的，请特别注意：
＊（1）I have seen the movie last year.
＊（2）I have never been to America last year.
＊（3）He has never finished his work last night.
现在完成式常和since、for、already、never、ever等字一起使用，以下都是这类的例子：
（1）I have already had dinner.
（2）Since this summer began, we have already had two storms.
（3）It has not rained for a long time.
（4）I have never talked to this man before.
（5）I have never met your father.
（6）Have you ever been to America?
（7）He has already won three awards.
（8）I have stayed here since June.
Never 和 ever 也常是我们弄不清楚如何使用的字，一般说来， never 有否定的意思，ever则只有在问句中才会出现。
【练习十一】
将以下句子译成英文，全部用现在完成式：
1.自从1980年，我就每天早上游泳。
2.我已收到了你的信。
3.我从未去过美国。
4.从他是一个小孩开始，他就是一个基督徒（Christian）。
5.我见过你的祖父。
6.你的弟弟一直住在这里。
7.他学钢琴已经很久了。
8.我已写了三封信给他，他都没有回。
9.过去三年我都在开这部车。
10.自从1975年以来，他一直是一位老师。
11.他教英文很久了。
12.我曾经看过乱世佳人（Gone with the Wind）。
13.我已吃过饭了。
14.今年我去过海滩三次。
15.我终其一生都爱你的。
【练习十二】
将以下句子译成英文，有的用过去式，有的用现在完成式
1.昨天我去看〝乱世佳人〞（Gone with the Wind）。
2.我从未看过〝乱世佳人〞。
3.去年，我住在美国。
4.自从1985年，我就一直住在美国。
5.他从未去过英国。
6.他已经完成了报告。
7.我昨天晚上完成了报告。
8.昨夜，我见到了你的父亲。
9.我已经见过你的父亲好几次了。
10.我终生都住在台中。
【练习十三】
填充
1. I （become） a Christian when I was a child.
2. I （be） a Christian all my life.
3. He （live） here since 1939.
4. Stop eating now. You （eat） too much.
5. It （rain） last night.
6. John is a writer. He （written） thirteen novels.
7. Last night, I （see） your father for the first time in my life.
8. I （talk） to my father last night.
9. Since 1961, I （be） a teacher. Before that, I （be） a student.
10. I （read） many novels written by Charles Dickens.
4§2现在完成进行式（Present Perfect Progressive Tense）
在上一节，我们知道，如果有一个行动，从过去发生后，就一直延续到现在，我们可以用现在完成式。举例来说，以下的例子都应该用现在完成式：
（1） 自从1974年，我就在学校学英文。
Since 1974, I have studied English at school.
（2） 自从我大学毕业以后，我就在这里工作。
Since I graduated from college, I have worked here.
以第一句话为例，假如我们要强调我一直在练习游泳，而且没有间断，我们可以用现在完成进行式（present perfect progressive tense）。所谓现在完成进行式，形式如下：
verb to have + been + present participle
verb to have 是为了完成式，been 和 present participle 都是为了进行式。
以下是现在完成进行式的例子：
I have been studying English since 1974.
I have been working here since I graduated from college.
I have been living here since I was a child.
He has been acting like a fool lately.（他最近一直在做傻事）
They have been dancing since seven o’clock.
It has been snowing since yesterday.
I have been taking music lessons since last year.
He has been drinking heavily since last year.（他去年起，就一直在酗酒）
【练习十四】
将以下的句子译成英文，全部用现在完成进行式：
1. 自从我们是小孩子起，我们就一直努力工作。
2. 从去年起，他就在念英文。
3. 从昨天起，就一直在下雨。
4. 从五时起，他就在做功课（do homework）。
5. 从三岁起，我就一直住在台中。
4§3 过去完成进行式（Past Perfect Progressive Tense）
过去完成式的形式如下：
had + past participle
过去完成式是不能单独用的。我们用的时候，必须有另一个事件。也就是说，假如我们有两件事 A 和 B，两件事都发生在过去，但 A 发生在 B 以前，A 应该用过去完成式，B 则用过去式。以下是几个例子：
（1） 他到台湾以前，曾学过中文。
He had studied Chinese before he came to Taiwan.
（2） 他念大学以前，曾前工作过。
He had worked before he decided to go to college.
（3） 我写这篇有关爱尔兰的小说以前，曾去过爱尔兰。
I had been to Ireland before I wrote this book about Ireland's people.
（4） 我在上大学以前，已经学过微积分。
I had studied calculus before I got into college.
（5） 周一以前，已经下过雪了。
It had already snowed before Monday.
如果我们要强调较早发生事件的连续性，我们可以用过去完成进行式。占去完成进行式和现在进行式惟一不同的地方是 verb to have 的地方一定要用had 。以下是一些过去完成进行式的例子：
1. I had been watching TV before you called me.
2. I had been working hard in a company for many years before I went to college.
3. He had been studying before he went to class.
4. He had been driving all day before he went to sleep.
【练习十五】
将以下中文句子译成英文，每一句都要用过去式和过去完成式：
1.我十四岁以前，就曾见过你的母亲。
2.我1974年以前，曾去过美国。
3.六年前，他曾念过圣经（the Bible）。
4.我念大学以前，曾经是个工程师（engineer）。
5.你来以前，我曾打电话给你。
6.在我昨天晚上吃饭以前，曾和李先生见过面。
7.在他辞职（resign）以前，他是个好校长（president）。
8.在他去世（die），他是个好医生。
9.在他到教堂以前，他一直在练习唱歌。
10.在今天早上八时以前，天一直在下雨。
【练习十六】
将以下的中文句子译成英文，选适宜的时态。
1.他昨天去看你的时候，你在唱歌。
2.他从前是个好孩子。
3.他们都喜欢打篮球。
4.我们正在看电视。
5.你在台湾住了很久了。
6.我已经看完了这本书。
7.他们一直都住在这里。
8.我来以前，曾去过教堂。
9.他喜欢看日出。
10.他喜欢游泳。
11.他自从六岁起，就一直在学钢琴（piano）。
12.他过去是个强壮的孩子。
13.在他生病以前，他曾是个非常健康（healthy）的人。
14.当火车进站时，人们在跳舞。
15.在战争爆发（break out）以前，他曾是个音乐家（musician）。
16.我曾见过你。
17.我去年见过你。
18.我已经将信写好了。
19.自从1974年以来，我就是一个军人（soldier）。
20.我读了很多英文书。
【练习十七】
将正确的动词填入以下各句的空白：（有的地方可能有多种答案）
1. He (love) his country.
2. He (love) his country, but now he does not.
3. I (be) a teacher since 1975.
4. I (be) a teacher before I went to college.
5. I (read) Shakespeare ever since I was a little girl.
6. When I went to see her yesterday, she (watch) TV.
7. I (see) your father before I saw you.
8. He (read) many detective stories.
9. He (go) to church every Sunday.
10. It (be) a cold day yesterday.
11. It (rain) for the last two days.
12. I (eat) too much. I am full now.
13. You (be) a nurse before the war broke out.
14. I (have) never (see) you in my life.
15. He (be) a teacher since 1980.
16. It (be) good to eat vegetables every day.
17. It (be) so nice to meet you last night.
18. She (be) such a nice girl before she died.
19. Peter (go) to America many times.
20. He (work) hard since last year. He (hope) to succeed in the college entrance examination this time.
第五章 未来式
5§1 未来式的基本规则
如果我们在句子中，有需要提到未来的事情，就可以使用未来式，举例来说，以下的句子都用未来式。
I will go to America tomorrow.
He will dance tonight.
Peter will finish his work next month.
如果不用〝will〞，我们可以用〝verb to be +going to+ verb〞，如果我们如此做，以上的三个句子就变成了以下的句子
I am going to go to America tomorrow.
He is going to dance tonight.
Peter is going to finish his work next month.
以下是一些未来式的例子：
1. I will call you tonight.
I am going to call you tonight.
2. He will graduate next June.
He is going to graduate next June.
3. Mr. Lee will teach us English soon.
Mr. Lee is going to teach us English soon.
4. He will help you.
He is going to help you.
5. The war will break out soon.
The war is going to break out soon.
6. It will rain tonight.
It is going to rain tonight.
有一个规则必须注意，就是will是一个助动词，现在式第三人称单数的主词，仍不用在will后面加s。
不仅如此，will后面的动词必须用成原式，如果用verb to be +going to+ verb这里面的verb也必须用原式。
因为这里面的to式infinitive，infinitive里面永远要用原型动词。
以下例子都是错的
1.＊He wills go to school.
2.＊He will goes to school.
3.＊They will went to work tomorrow.
4.＊Tom is going to saw me tonight.
5.＊Peter is going to working next month.
未来式常和别的句子用在一起，以下是典型的例子
1. When you come tomorrow, I will already be in Taipei.
2. After I graduate, I am going to be a good doctor in Africa.
3. Before I leave tomorrow, I will finish my work.
4. After the war is over, every one will be happy.
5. I will go to a concert after my classes are over.
6. I will eat lunch as soon as I have time.
但千万不可写出以下错误的句子：
＊When you will come tomorrow, I will already be in Taipei.
＊After the war will be over, every one will be happy.
＊I will eat lunch as soon as I will have time.
【练习十八】
将以下的中文句子翻成英文句子，用will或to be going to：
1. 我明天要上教堂（go to church）。
2. 他下周一要和我见面。
3. 他明天要整理这个房间（clean this room）。
4. 我明天吃晚饭后要去台北。
5. 我明天晚上回家以后，就打电话给你。
6. 我毕业以后会去念法律。
7. 明天你走以后，我要看电视.。
8. 明天我会去台南。
9. 今天晚上我要写一封信给你。
10. 今晚，我要等我的哥哥。
【练习十九】
填充：
1. I (be) in America next year, after I (graduate).
2. I (explain) this to you tonight after I (read) the report.
3. I (see) you tonight.
4. As soon as you (come) to see me, I (give) you my book.
5. When you (arrive) in New York tomorrow, Tom (be) in the airport to meet you.
6. I (go) to church after the rain stops.
7. I (watch) the new TV program after you (leave).
8. When you (get) here tomorrow, everyone (wait) for you.
9. I (get) a job as soon as I get out of college.
10. He________ (have) dinner very late tomorrow.
11. I________ (quit) my present job, after I________ (find) a better one.
5§2 未来式的变形
未来式可以和进行式合起来用，以下是未来进行式的例子
I will be watching TV tomorrow at eight.
He will be eating a big dinner after he gets out of the hospital.
I will be studying mathematics at home when you come.
Two days later, I will be driving a new car.
未来式可以和完成式合在一起用，而成为未来完成式，这种句子都是在于强调未来要完成的事。举例来说，”我明天六点以前，我会完成这工作了”，就可以用未来完成式：
I will have finished this work by six o’clock tomorrow.
以下是一些未来完成式的例子
By the time he arrives at the station, the train will have left.
We will have had three meetings before six o’clock tonight.
He will have written six novels next summer.
【练习二十】
填充：（用未来进行式或未来完成式）
1. I (watch) the baseball game tomorrow night.
2. He (finish) the report when you arrive at his home.
3. I (wash) my car tonight when my mother comes.
4. They (play) their violins when the clock strikes twelve.
5. He (complete) writing this program before ten o’clock tonight.
6. He (be) the president for three years next May.
7. I (wash) my car when you come tonight.
8. I (read) this report before six o’clock tomorrow evening.
9. Peter (dance) in the streets if Mr. Robertson is elected president.
10. I (drive) four hundred miles tomorrow.
【练习二十一】
将以下中文句子译成英文
1. 彼得生于1965年，他从小就喜欢音乐，自从1975年起，他就一直在练习小提琴。现在他是一个很好的小提琴家。
2. 我的哥哥明天会来看我，他来的时候，我会在家里看电视。我喜欢看有关医院的节目。
3. 在我小的时候我常常喜欢打篮球，现在我不打篮球了，因为我曾有一次车祸（car accident）。
4. 我现在在打电话给我的母亲，我的母亲现在88岁，他在台北已经住了60年。
5. 在我去美国以前，我曾经去过英国，当我在英国的时候，我碰见了一个美丽的女孩子，他后来成为我的太太。
【练习二十二】
填充
1. I (watching) TV now. I (watch) TV every day.
2. He (have) a big dinner before we arrived last night. It (be) a good meal. He seldom (eat) so much.
3. He (work) on this novel for a very long time. By the time he (finish) it, he (written) six novels.
4. I (be) to America several times. I (go) to America again next year.
5. I (live) in Taipei when I was a child. When I was six years old, I (move) to Taiwan and (live) there ever since.
6. He (be) an honest person all his life. That is why so many people (like) him.
7. It (be) my birthday tomorrow. Yet I (have) a test the day after tomorrow. So I (study) in the library tomorrow night.
8. He (be) a strong kid when he was young. Now although he (be) seventy years old, he (be) still quite healthy.
9. I (have) this car for nine years. I (sell) it and (buy) a new one next year.
10. He (take) a bath every morning. Today, since he (get) up very late, he (go) to school directly without taking a bath.
第六章　否定句子(Negative Sentences)
6§1 否定句的基本规则
在任何语言，我们都有必要造出〝否定〞的句子，在中文，写出否定句子并非难事，在英文，无论任何否定句子，都必须遵行一些规定，以下是否定句子的例子
肯定句子
否定句子
I like music.
I don’t like music.
He loves swimming.
He does not love swimming.
They have come to work.
They have not come to work.
Mary went to see a movie yesterday.
Mary did not go to see a movie yesterday.
John is a good boy.
John is not a good boy.
I will go to New York tomorrow.
I will not go to New York tomorrow.
He can sing.
He can not sing.
You may go now.
You may not go now.
He should sleep early.
He should not sleep early.
It is raining now.
It is not raining now.
It rains very often here.
It does not rain very often here.
He has a lot of money.
He does not have a lot of money.
It is exciting to see this game.
It is not exciting to see this game.
He asked me three questions.
He did not ask me three questions.
从以上的例子来看，我们可以归纳出以下的规则：
1.Verb to be 后面可以直接加not。例如：
He is not a good teacher.
Mary was not very happy when she was young.
They are not strong boys.
Peter is not coming.
John is not going to work.
2.助动词后面可以直接加not。例如：
He has not written any letter.
They will not come.
He cannot swim.
They should not cry very often.
Tom had not eaten any thing before you came.
He may never eat cakes in the future.
John has not lived here.
3.一般句子的动词必须加入do或他的变形。
He does not smoke.
He did not go.
I do not love sports.
You do not like to eat fish.
They do not swim very well.
We did not see that movie.
在英文中，我们可以用have to来代替must，以下是have to的例子：
He has to go to Chicago tomorrow.（他明天应该去芝加哥）
They had to buy three tickets to go to the concert.（他们必须买三张票去听音乐会）
I have to work very hard.（我必须努力工作）
含有have to的句子，如要改成否定句子，必须在have to前面加do或它的变形，请看以下的例子：
肯定句子
否定句子
He has to eat a lot of food.
He does not have to eat a lot of food.
He had to leave.
He did not have to leave.
I have to write that letter.
I do not have to write that letter.
【练习二十三】
将以下的肯定句子改成否定句子：
1. I saw your brother last night.
2. I like apples.
3. She is a beautiful girl.
4. They can play violin very well.
5. Mr. Chang must answer the following questions.
6. He went to see his brother last night.
7. He could sing many songs.
8. He will buy this car.
9. It rained heavily last night.
10. I have lived here for three years.
11. He has to see his mother.
12. He had to stay here yesterday.
6§2 No, Never和Any的用法
要达成否定的意思,有时我们也可以用no和never这些字，no必须跟一个名词，请看下面的例子：
1.I saw no students here.
2.There are no lakes in this country.
3.I have no money.
4.I had no choice.
5.He has no friends.
以上这些例子也可以用not来表示否定的意思，如果用not，则以上的句子应该照下面的方式写；
1.I did not see any student here.
2.We can not find any lake in this country.
3.I do not have any money.
4.I did not have any choice.
5.He does not have any friends.
除以上not之外，never也可以表达否定的意思，以下都是never的例子，请注意never常用在完成式的句子里：
I have never gone there.
He has never written any song.
They have never washed their clothes.
【练习二十四】
用no，not和never填空在以下的句子里:
1. I have money.
2. A selfish person does have any friends.
3. man is entirely alone.
4. one is living here. We can get into this house.
5. a single person loves me.
6. one loves me.
7. The person whom I saw did come.
8. I did go to work yesterday.
9. I had work to do yesterday.
10. I can find any one in this hall.
11. I have gone to America.
12. He has written to me.
第七章 问句(Questions)
7§1　答案只是〝Yes〞或〝No〞的问题
有些问题，答案只有〝Yes〞或〝No〞，以下是一些例子。
原来句子
问句
I am a boy.
Am I a boy?
He has a car.
Does he have a car?
I gave him three books.
Did I give him three books?
He cannot work.
Can he work?
He has not seen me.
Has he seen me?
They like your novel.
Do They like your novel?
The sun sets in the west.
Does the sunset in the west?
They are good teachers.
Are they good teachers?
He will not go to a concert tonight.
Will he go to a concert tonight?
He is going to swim.
Is he going to swim?
They must eat vegetables.
Must they eat vegetables?
They have to go.
Do they have to go?
I walked two kilometers yesterday.
Did I walk two kilometers yesterday?
It is raining now.
Is it raining now?
根据以上的例子，我们可以归纳乘以下的规则：
(1) 凡动词是verb to be的，变成问句时，动词移到主词前面去。
例子：
原来句子
问句
You are a girl.
Are you a girl?
He was a teacher.
Was he a teacher?
They were all old.
Were they all old?
This song is beautiful.
Is this song beautiful?
Peter is a good student.
Is Peter a good student?
(2) 动词不是verb to be，也没有助动词，改成问句时，必须加助动词do或他的变形，这个助动词必须在主词的前面。
例子：
原来句子
问句
I like music.
Do I like music?
He likes sports.
Does he like sports?
Peter went to America.
Did Peter go to America?
He ate three apples last night.
Did he eat three apples last night?
Her mother calls her every week.
Does her mother call her every week?
(3) 句子中间如已有助动词，改成问句时，只要将助动词移到主动词前面即可。
例子：
原来句子
问句
He did not eat.
Did he eat?
He has gone to America.
Has he gone to America?
She can dance.
Can she dance?
I will see you tonight.
Will I see you tonight?
They are going to Washington.
Are they going to Washington?
我们的问句中，当然也可已有否定的意义，比方说，我们可以问：
你不喜欢音乐吗？
他不是你的弟弟吗？
你从未见过他？
英文句子也可以如此，例如：
Don’t you like music?
Doesn’t he play piano?
Aren’t you his brother?
Isn’t he a good student?
Didn’t he go to school?
Hasn’t he lived here?
Won’t he leave tomorrow?
注意，这时not通常和动词连在一起了。
有一件事，是我们中国人必须注意的，假如有人问你：
你不喜欢音乐吗？
而你本人的确也不喜欢音乐，你会回答说：
是，我不喜欢音乐。
也就是说，我们中国人的回答是顺着问句的。问句说你不喜欢，我们同意他的说法，所以前面加一个〝是〞。假设我喜欢音乐，我会回答说：
不，我喜欢音乐。
可是，英文正好相反，英文的yes和no，与问句的问法无关，而对应了回答的事实。举例来说，我们的问句也许是：
Don’t you like music?
你如不喜欢音乐就回答说：
No, I don’t like music.
你如喜欢音乐，就回答说：
Yes, I like music.
再举一例，有人问：
Isn’t he Chinese?
他是中国人就回答：
Yes, he is.
他如不是，就回答：
No, he isn’t.
反正，英文的yes和no，都和答案的事实对应，而与如何问无关。
【练习二十五】
将以下句子翻译成英文问句：
1. 你喜欢他吗？
2. 他是美国人吗？
3. 你昨天有没有去教堂？
4. 他曾经到过日本吗？
5. 你要去台北吗？
6. 他不喜欢体育吗？
7. 你从未去过日本吗？
8. 他有一个妹妹吗？
9. 他们都是学生吗？
10. 你的哥哥昨天见过我爸爸吗？
7§2 回答不只是〝yes〞和〝no〞的问句
问句的答案当然不一定只是yes或no，以下的问句都是例子：
Where did you buy this book?
Where did you see him?
How do you like America?
Whom do you like?
Which cake do you want?
Whose book is this?
What kind of method is this?
Which country were you born in?
Which do you want, an apple or an orange?
Whom do you like most, your brother or your sister?
Where did you go last night?
When did you meet your father?
When did you read this book?
Whom did you give this book to?
以上的问句中都有助动词，但以下的问句中，助动词是不存在的：
Who gave you this car?
Who wrote this letter?
Who took my pen away?
Who wants to go with me?
Who can sing this song?
【练习二十六】
将以下的中文问句翻译成英文问句：
1. 你在哪里买这本书的？
2. 他什么时候到美国去的？
3. 他爸爸的名字是什么？
4. 这是谁的书？
5. 你从哪里来的？
6. 你要哪一本书？
7. 这个孩子是谁？
8. 他最喜欢谁？
9. 他叫什么名字？
10. 你昨天到哪里去了？
11. 这是谁的狗？
【练习二十七】
填空
1. did you go last night?
2. book do you like?
3. is your brother?
4. is his name?
5. wrote this letter?
6. did you give this book to?
7. gave you this book?
8. car is this?
9. dog is this?
10. movie did you see?
11. can speak English?
12. did you speak to?
13. kind of car is this?
14. fruit do you like most?
15. does not swim?
第八章 被动语气(Passive Voice)
8§1 及物动词和不及物动词
任何一个英文句子必定有一个动词，请先注意以下例句的动词
1. He was a teacher before.
2. He went to school yesterday.
3. He hit a dog.
4. I saw you yesterday.
5. He walks to school every day.
6. He sent this book to me.
7. They are good students.
8. He wrote two novels.
9. They ate all of the apples.
10. He swims every morning.
在以上的例子中，第3、4、6、8及9句子中的动词都是及物动词（transitive verbs）。这些动词后面都跟着一个名词，而这个名词是动词的受词（object），其它句子的动词，都是不及物动词，因为他们都没有任何受词。
我们将以上句子中，主词、及物动词和受词的关系分析如下：
句子
主词
及物动词
受词
He hit a dog.
He
hit
dog
I saw you yesterday.
I
saw
you
He sent his book to me.
He
sent
his book
He wrote two novels.
He
wrote
two novels
They ate all of the apples.
They
ate
all of the apples
一旦动词是及物动词，我们就可以将这个句子由原来的主动语气（active voice）改成被动语气（passive voice）。但我们也要警告读者，不要轻易用被动语气，因为有时被动语气的句子是不自然的。
8§2 没有助动词的被动语气
在这以前，我们的句子都是主动语气，这种句子的基本形式如下：
主词＋动词＋受词
所谓的被动语气，乃是将原来的受词变成主词。举例来说，主动语气中，我们说〝我看到一些狗〞，在被动语气中，我们说〝一些狗被我看到〞。在英文中，将主动语气改成被动语气，必须做以下的动作：
（1） 原有受词变成名词
（2） 动词变成verb to be＋过去分词（past participle）
（3） 原有主词变成在动词后面，但前面加by。
举例来说，主动语气的句子可以是
I saw a cat.
被动语气就成了
A cat was seen by me.
最重要的是，verb to be的时式必须和原句子的相同，以上的例子中，动词是过去式，所以verb to be也是过去式。除此以外，verb to be也要配合新的主词。请看以下的例子：
I saw two cats.
改成被动语气以后，句子是：
Two cats were seen by me.
以下是主动改被动的例子，最重要的是注意verb to be的形式：
主动语气（active voice）
被动语气（passive voice）
Mr. Jones hit the dog.
The dog was hit by Mr. Jones.
My brother saw you yesterday.
You were seen by my brother yesterday.
He sent the book to me.
The book was sent to me by him.
Dickens wrote those two novels.
Those two novels were written by Dickens.
They ate all of the apples.
All of the apples were eaten by them.
Jane wrote that song.
That song was written by Jane.
My mother loves me.
I am loved by my mother.
【练习二十八】
将以下的句子由主动语气改成被动：
1. He saw that movie last night.
2. He wrote that letter to me.
3. He teaches those English classes.
4. God loves you.
5. They bought two houses.
6. I painted this room.
7. He grows those roses.
8. He helps his students.
9. I sold the house.
10. My uncle bought this car.
【练习二十九】
将以下的句子由被动语气改成主动语气：
1. The policeman was seen by me.
2. Those two books were written by me.
3. These sentences were corrected by my teacher.
4. He was hit by a car.
5. His door was locked by me.
6. His house was built by my father.
7. His boat was given to me by my father.
8. This bird is rarely seen by people here.
9. He is liked by every one.
10. They were given ten dollars by their friends.
11. This picture was taken by him.
12. Too much wine was drunk by the young men.
13. I was taught by Mr. Wang.
14. He was helped by his father.
15. They were served by that waiter.
16. His food was prepared by my mother.
17. His toy was made by my sister.
18. The book was returned to me by Jim.
19. That song was written by my brother.
20. I was invited by him to a party.
8§3 有助动词肯定句子的被动语气
在上一节，我们所有的例子都只是肯定句子，句子中没有助动词，可是有些肯定句子还是有助动词的，以下是一些例子：
主动语气
被动语气
现在进形式
I am writing this letter.
The letter is being written by me.
现在完程序
I have written the letter.
The letter has been written by me.
过去进形式
I was writing the letter when you came.
The letter was being written by me when you came.
过去完程序
I had written the letter before you came.
The letter had been written by me before you came.
未来式
I will write the letter.
The letter will be written by me.
未来完成式
I will have written this letter.
This letter will have been written by me.
未来式
I am going to see you.
You are going to be seen by me.
以下是更多的例子：
主动语气
被动语气
I have seen him.
He has been seen by me.
He is going to help you.
You are going to be helped by him.
He will teach English.
English will be taught by him.
He has helped me all my life.
I have been helped by him all my life.
He had called me before you came.
I had been called by him before you came.
He was calling his mother when we went there.
His mother was being called by him when we went there.
助动词不一定和时式有关，can、should、has to等等都是助动词，这些助动词在改成被动语气的时后，都应维持原状，只需加入verb to be和过去分词即可。以下是一些例子：
主动语气
被动语气
I can play the piano.
The piano can be played by me.
I may use this room.
This room may be used by me.
He must give the book to me.
The book must be given to me by him.
You should help him.
He should be helped by you.
You have to write this letter.
This letter has to be written by you.
He ought to write this report.
This report ought to be written by him.
【练习三十】
将以下的句子改成被动语气：
1. He has written three novels.
2. He will write that letter.
3. They will sing these songs tomorrow.
4. He will give the speech.
5. They are painting the house.
6. I have given him three books.
7. I can do this job.
8. He had told me that story before we went there.
9. Teachers should help the students.
10. He is writing the report now.
11. The students must read this book.
12. I have to give this letter to my mother tonight.
13. All citizens ought to obey the law.
14. He has eaten all of the cakes.
15. The reporters were taking pictures when the storm started.
16. He had finished the work before five o'clock last night.
17. Peter will write that letter.
18. Jo