神马文学网现代语言学之我见
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语言学作为一门独立的学科来研究还是人类文化历史新近发展的产物。在它刚刚出现时，对于语言学到底算不算科学曾经有很大的争论。但是现在这种争论已经渐渐消失了，语言学在科学领域已经建立了牢固的地位。在中国，语言的学习已经有很长的历史了，但是现代语言学的研究却还需要经历很长时间才能赶超世界水平。
简述所学各章
1、绪论：（linguistics and language）什么是语言学，什么是语言？
2、音位学（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的区别特征，音位变体，音位分布、对立，超音段音位等作了介绍。
3、形态学（morphology）：研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则
4、句法学（syntax）：句法学是一门关于自然语言的句子结构的学问，是普通语言学的核心内容之一。本讲座含语言的规则系统，句子结构，语法关系，组合规则与移位规则和普通语法等六部分，对句法体系，句子语法性和句法心理现实性，句子成分和基本类型，句子的线性与层次性等作了说明。
5、语义学（semantics）：就语义的定义，研究目标，语义理论的形式化和应用，语义学的历史发展，词汇语义学及句子语义学展开介绍。
6、语用学（pragmatics）：就语用学的起源及定义，语用学和语义学的比较，语境的理解，及语用研究的重要原则等展开讲解。
7、历史语言学（historical linguistics）：语言的变化。研究语言变化的目的和意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。
8、社会语言学（sociolinguistics）：社会语境中的语言。语言变异与语用情景、方言及方言使用的社会功能、双言与双语现象、少数民族方言、社会方言等五部分。
9、心理语言学（psycholinguistics）：学习语言与心脑的关系。包括语言的生理基础、语言侧化、语言中枢、失语症研究、语言习得的关键期和语言与思维的关系等六部分。
10、语言习得（language acquisition）：人类语言能力的获得机器发展的过程。
一、绪论
语言学的定义
语言学的研究范畴
几对基本概念
语言的定义
语言的甄别特征
What is linguistics？ 什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages ingeneral. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴
Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language？ 什么是语言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 语言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）
Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 语言的甄别特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1） arbitrariness 武断性
2） productivity 创造性
3） duality 二重性
4） displacement移位性
5） cultural transmission 文化传递性
二、音系学
语言的声音媒介
什么是语音学
发音器官
音标……宽式和严式标音法
英语语音的分类
音系学和语音学
语音、音位、音位变体
音位对立、互补分部、最小对立
几条音系规则
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
Organs of speech 发音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。单词补充：
01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭
02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块
03） larynx: n. 喉
04） vocal cord: 声带
05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官
06） the soft palate: 软腭
07） the hard palate: 硬腭
08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈
09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
10） the teeth: 牙齿
11） the lips: 上下唇
12） blade of tongue: 舌面
13） back of tongue: 舌根
14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18） the upper front teeth: 上齿
19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚
20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）
The constants 辅音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英语语音的分类
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英语辅音分类
此主题相关图片如下： Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度
:the shape of the lips园唇与否
:length of the vowels元音的长度此主题相关图片如下： Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
语音，音位，音位变体Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. And
最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in phonology几条音系规则
Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化规则
Deletion rule 省略规则
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a when it occurs before a final nasal constant
Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;
超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。
语素：语言最小的意义单位
语素的类型
复合词的类型
复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）
自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词
Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀）
1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）:
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2）Derivational affixes（派生词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix
An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme（词素）
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）
1） Root 2） Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）
Individual （stem） desirable （stem）
dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）
divide（root, stem）Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3）'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5）'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7）'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8）'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding复合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine
Adjective noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline
Adjective noun -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed
Verb noun（动词＋名词）―――driveway, breakwater（挡水板）
Adverb noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden
Noun verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall
Verb adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off
Noun adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong
-ing form noun（ing 名词）―――baking power, dining-room
other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds复合词的特征
1.Orthographically书写特征
（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）
2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性）
3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和）
4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）
四、句法学
句子的构成
句子的类型
句子的线性排列与层次结构
词类
词组类
短语结构规则
短语结构 规则的循环性
X标杆理论
名词词组移位与WH移位
其他类型的移位
深层结构与表层结构
移动a规则
普遍语法原则
普遍语法参数
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Types of sentences句子的类型
The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子
The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分
The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.
句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）Syntactic categories 句法类型
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to
Lexical categories 词类
Major Lexical Categories主要词类
Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名词、动词、形容词、副词
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasal categories词组类
Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）
名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammatical relations 语法关系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.
语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。
The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语
The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）
逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinational rules 组合规则
Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
NP-Det N （a/the man）
NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。
X-bar theory X标杆理论
（X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则的理论。）一定要结合书本！Syntactic movement and movement rules
移位规则
NP-movement and WH-movement
名词词组移位和WH移位
五、语义学
什么是语义学
命名论
意念论
语境论
行为主义论
意义和所指
主要的意义关系
句子间的意义的关系
成分分析
述谓结构分析
semantics语义学
semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 对语义的研究
（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章将只限于讨论语言学家对语义的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论
The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名论是最原始的语义理论， 该理论把词看做是该词所指事务的名称或标记。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）
The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论人为词汇和该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的， 而是间接的， 其中介是存在于人的头脑的意念,词汇通过意念来指称事物， 意念便是词汇的意义。
Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
语境论人为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境， 语义不是抽象的， 它存在于语境之中， 它来自语境取决于语境。
举例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）
the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（语义的行为主义和语义的语境有相似之处， 它也把语义放到语境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活动，人为语言的意义在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所听到话语的反应。
lexical meaning 词汇意义
sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
意义是词汇内在的， 抽象的游离于语境之外的意义
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。Major sense relation主要的意义关系 （请结合《词汇学》学习）
Synonymy同义关系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）
Stylistic synonyms: start/begin
Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for
Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多义关系
Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning
Homonymy同形异义
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形异义字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下义
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Superordinate（上位）：flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反义
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm
Complementary antonyms：male/female
Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系
X is synonymous with Y. 同义关系
Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾关系
Eg：X：He is married.
Y: He is a bachelor
X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蕴涵关系 Y>X
Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.
蕴涵是包含关系， 如果X继承Y， 则意味着Y包含X的意义。
Eg：X: He likes swimming.
Y: He likes sports
X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）预设关系
Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.
Y: He has a bike
X is a contradiction
X is semantically anomalous
Analysis of meaning 意义分析
componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析
Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
成分分析法是以分析词汇抽象意义的一种方法。它把词汇分析为一个个具有区别作用的语义特征，根据词汇是否包含这些特征来研究、区分词汇意义。
Eg:"man"—— HUMAN, ADULT, ANIMATE, MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析
A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.谓述结构由论元与谓词组成
论元：句子中的出现的担任成分意义的名词。
Two-place predication （containing two arguments）
One-place predication （containing one argument）
No-place predication （containing no argument）
Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）
It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:这里的it不能看做是论元。
The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）
第六章 语用学
第一节 什么是语用学
（1） 定义
（2） 语用学和语义学
（3） 语境
（4） 句子意义和话语意义
第二节 言语行为理论
第三节 会话原则
Pragmatics 语用学
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
对语用学可以作多种不同的定义， 但关键是要认识到语用学本质上是一种意义研究， 是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学与语义学
The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
语用学和语义学两者都是对意义的研究，它们根本的区别在于语义学研究的语言的抽象意义， 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。
Context语境
Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境可以理解为交际双方共有的知识。
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义
Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.
句子意义是抽象的， 是句子的语义内容；话语意义基于句子意义， 是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化， 体现说话的人意图和目的。
Speech act theory言语行为理论
According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
英国哲学家奥斯汀提出， 在说话时， 说话人很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为， 言外行为和言后行为。
Eg：You have left the door wide open.
locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"
illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.
perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door
Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美国语言学家舍尔把言外行为分为5类：
Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
Principle of conversation 会话原则
Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原则
The maxim of quality 量准则
The maxim of quality质准则
The maxim of relation关联准则
The maxim of manner方式准则
第七章 历史语言学
第一节 研究语言变化的目的与意义
第二节 语言变化的本质
第三节 英语的历史发展
（1） 英语历史发展的主要阶段
（2） 英语语言系统的变化
第四节 语系
（1） 语系的划分
（2） 印欧语系
第五节 语言变化的原因
（1） 语音的同化
（2） 规则的简化与统一
（3） 内部借用
（4） 社会因素
（5） 文化传播
（6） 儿童语言习得
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）
历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。
The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的与意义
The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.
研究语言变化是对人类本身及其语言能力的再认识。 通过对语言变化史的研究， 我们可以对人类语言的形成与发展规律、各族语言的亲缘关系、语言发展和语言所处的社会历史环境的关系有一个深刻认识。
The nature of language change 语言变化的本质
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
语言变化是普遍的， 持续的， 在一定的程度范围内规则的， 系统的变化。The historical development of English 英语的历史发展
Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段
Old English古英语 （roughly from 449 to 1100）
Middle English 中古英语（roughly from 1100 to 1500）
Modern English现代英语 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）
2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）
3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英语语言系统的变化 （loss， addition， 许多变化都表现为规则的失去、增加、外借和变异）
Sound change语音系统的变化
Morphological change 形态系统的变化
Syntactic change句法系统的变化
Lexical change词汇系统的变化
Semantic change语义系统的变化Language family 语系
Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分
There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
世界上有4千多种语言，分别隶属印欧、汉藏等30个语系。
The Indo-European language family 印欧语系
It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
印欧语系锁骨历史语言学家研究最早和最深的一种语系。 印欧语系含大部分欧洲语言和印度次大陆语言在内的约150种语言。
The Indo-European Language Family
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages
The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.
The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.
The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
The Italian Group（意大利语族）：
Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.
The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.
The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc
The cause of language change 语言变化的原因
Sound assimilation语音同化
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
语音同化是指一个音受其毗邻的音的音响而发生音变， 使其发音变得与毗邻的音接近。
"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一
It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns
英语名词复数的形式有规则形态变化与不规则形态变化两种， 在英语演化过程中， 由于不规则形态趋于规则化， 所以复数形式趋向简化。Internal borrowing 内部借用
Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.
引起语言变化的又一原因是旨在减轻记忆复旦的语言规则的内部借用现象。
Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration规则的细化
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.
为了避免出现模棱两可、含糊不清的词句， 或为了提高语言表达上的准确性往往需要增加一些规则，致使句法规则更加细化。Social triggers社会因素
Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.
Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.
促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的， 更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化， 如：侵略战争、殖民化政策、政府推行的语言规划政策或标准化运动等。Cultural transmission 文化传播
One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.
Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"
语言变化的原因还在于， 层出不穷的新观念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语言习得
The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.
儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯， 儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或规则化的表达方式， 语言演化也就自然出现了。
简述所学各章
1、绪论：（linguistics and language）什么是语言学，什么是语言？
2、音位学（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的区别特征，音位变体，音位分布、对立，超音段音位等作了介绍。
3、形态学（morphology）：研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则
4、句法学（syntax）：句法学是一门关于自然语言的句子结构的学问，是普通语言学的核心内容之一。本讲座含语言的规则系统，句子结构，语法关系，组合规则与移位规则和普通语法等六部分，对句法体系，句子语法性和句法心理现实性，句子成分和基本类型，句子的线性与层次性等作了说明。
5、语义学（semantics）：就语义的定义，研究目标，语义理论的形式化和应用，语义学的历史发展，词汇语义学及句子语义学展开介绍。
6、语用学（pragmatics）：就语用学的起源及定义，语用学和语义学的比较，语境的理解，及语用研究的重要原则等展开讲解。
7、历史语言学（historical linguistics）：语言的变化。研究语言变化的目的和意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。
8、社会语言学（sociolinguistics）：社会语境中的语言。语言变异与语用情景、方言及方言使用的社会功能、双言与双语现象、少数民族方言、社会方言等五部分。
9、心理语言学（psycholinguistics）：学习语言与心脑的关系。包括语言的生理基础、语言侧化、语言中枢、失语症研究、语言习得的关键期和语言与思维的关系等六部分。
10、语言习得（language acquisition）：人类语言能力的获得机器发展的过程。
一、绪论
语言学的定义
语言学的研究范畴
几对基本概念
语言的定义
语言的甄别特征
What is linguistics？ 什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages ingeneral. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴
Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language？ 什么是语言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 语言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）
Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 语言的甄别特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1） arbitrariness 武断性
2） productivity 创造性
3） duality 二重性
4） displacement移位性
5） cultural transmission 文化传递性
二、音系学
语言的声音媒介
什么是语音学
发音器官
音标……宽式和严式标音法
英语语音的分类
音系学和语音学
语音、音位、音位变体
音位对立、互补分部、最小对立
几条音系规则
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
Organs of speech 发音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。单词补充：
01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭
02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块
03） larynx: n. 喉
04） vocal cord: 声带
05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官
06） the soft palate: 软腭
07） the hard palate: 硬腭
08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈
09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
10） the teeth: 牙齿
11） the lips: 上下唇
12） blade of tongue: 舌面
13） back of tongue: 舌根
14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18） the upper front teeth: 上齿
19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚
20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）
The constants 辅音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英语语音的分类
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英语辅音分类
此主题相关图片如下： Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度
:the shape of the lips园唇与否
:length of the vowels元音的长度此主题相关图片如下： Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
语音，音位，音位变体Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. And
最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in phonology几条音系规则
Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化规则
Deletion rule 省略规则
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a when it occurs before a final nasal constant
Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;
超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。
语素：语言最小的意义单位
语素的类型
复合词的类型
复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）
自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词
Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀）
1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）:
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2）Derivational affixes（派生词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix
An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme（词素）
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）
1） Root 2） Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）
Individual （stem） desirable （stem）
dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）
divide（root, stem）Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3）'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5）'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7）'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8）'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding复合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine
Adjective noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline
Adjective noun -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed
Verb noun（动词＋名词）―――driveway, breakwater（挡水板）
Adverb noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden
Noun verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall
Verb adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off
Noun adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong
-ing form noun（ing 名词）―――baking power, dining-room
other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds复合词的特征
1.Orthographically书写特征
（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）
2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性）
3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和）
4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）
四、句法学
句子的构成
句子的类型
句子的线性排列与层次结构
词类
词组类
短语结构规则
短语结构 规则的循环性
X标杆理论
名词词组移位与WH移位
其他类型的移位
深层结构与表层结构
移动a规则
普遍语法原则
普遍语法参数
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Types of sentences句子的类型
The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子
The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分
The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.
句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）Syntactic categories 句法类型
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to
Lexical categories 词类
Major Lexical Categories主要词类
Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名词、动词、形容词、副词
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasal categories词组类
Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）
名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammatical relations 语法关系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.
语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。
The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语
The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）
逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinational rules 组合规则
Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
NP-Det N （a/the man）
NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。
X-bar theory X标杆理论
（X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则的理论。）一定要结合书本！Syntactic movement and movement rules
移位规则
NP-movement and WH-movement
名词词组移位和WH移位
五、语义学
什么是语义学
命名论
意念论
语境论
行为主义论
意义和所指
主要的意义关系
句子间的意义的关系
成分分析
述谓结构分析
semantics语义学
semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 对语义的研究
（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章将只限于讨论语言学家对语义的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论
The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名论是最原始的语义理论， 该理论把词看做是该词所指事务的名称或标记。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）
The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论人为词汇和该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的， 而是间接的， 其中介是存在于人的头脑的意念,词汇通过意念来指称事物， 意念便是词汇的意义。
Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
语境论人为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境， 语义不是抽象的， 它存在于语境之中， 它来自语境取决于语境。
举例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）
the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（语义的行为主义和语义的语境有相似之处， 它也把语义放到语境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活动，人为语言的意义在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所听到话语的反应。
lexical meaning 词汇意义
sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
意义是词汇内在的， 抽象的游离于语境之外的意义
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。Major sense relation主要的意义关系 （请结合《词汇学》学习）
Synonymy同义关系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）
Stylistic synonyms: start/begin
Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for
Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多义关系
Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning
Homonymy同形异义
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形异义字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下义
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Superordinate（上位）：flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反义
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm
Complementary antonyms：male/female
Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系
X is synonymous with Y. 同义关系
Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾关系
Eg：X：He is married.
Y: He is a bachelor
X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蕴涵关系 Y>X
Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.
蕴涵是包含关系， 如果X继承Y， 则意味着Y包含X的意义。
Eg：X: He likes swimming.
Y: He likes sports
X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）预设关系
Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.
Y: He has a bike
X is a contradiction
X is semantically anomalous
Analysis of meaning 意义分析
componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析
Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
成分分析法是以分析词汇抽象意义的一种方法。它把词汇分析为一个个具有区别作用的语义特征，根据词汇是否包含这些特征来研究、区分词汇意义。
Eg:"man"—— HUMAN, ADULT, ANIMATE, MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析
A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.谓述结构由论元与谓词组成
论元：句子中的出现的担任成分意义的名词。
Two-place predication （containing two arguments）
One-place predication （containing one argument）
No-place predication （containing no argument）
Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）
It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:这里的it不能看做是论元。
The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）
第六章 语用学
第一节 什么是语用学
（1） 定义
（2） 语用学和语义学
（3） 语境
（4） 句子意义和话语意义
第二节 言语行为理论
第三节 会话原则
Pragmatics 语用学
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
对语用学可以作多种不同的定义， 但关键是要认识到语用学本质上是一种意义研究， 是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学与语义学
The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
语用学和语义学两者都是对意义的研究，它们根本的区别在于语义学研究的语言的抽象意义， 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。
Context语境
Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境可以理解为交际双方共有的知识。
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义
Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.
句子意义是抽象的， 是句子的语义内容；话语意义基于句子意义， 是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化， 体现说话的人意图和目的。
Speech act theory言语行为理论
According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
英国哲学家奥斯汀提出， 在说话时， 说话人很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为， 言外行为和言后行为。
Eg：You have left the door wide open.
locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"
illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.
perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door
Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美国语言学家舍尔把言外行为分为5类：
Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
Principle of conversation 会话原则
Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原则
The maxim of quality 量准则
The maxim of quality质准则
The maxim of relation关联准则
The maxim of manner方式准则
第七章 历史语言学
第一节 研究语言变化的目的与意义
第二节 语言变化的本质
第三节 英语的历史发展
（1） 英语历史发展的主要阶段
（2） 英语语言系统的变化
第四节 语系
（1） 语系的划分
（2） 印欧语系
第五节 语言变化的原因
（1） 语音的同化
（2） 规则的简化与统一
（3） 内部借用
（4） 社会因素
（5） 文化传播
（6） 儿童语言习得
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）
历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。
The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的与意义
The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.
研究语言变化是对人类本身及其语言能力的再认识。 通过对语言变化史的研究， 我们可以对人类语言的形成与发展规律、各族语言的亲缘关系、语言发展和语言所处的社会历史环境的关系有一个深刻认识。
The nature of language change 语言变化的本质
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
语言变化是普遍的， 持续的， 在一定的程度范围内规则的， 系统的变化。The historical development of English 英语的历史发展
Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段
Old English古英语 （roughly from 449 to 1100）
Middle English 中古英语（roughly from 1100 to 1500）
Modern English现代英语 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）
2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）
3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英语语言系统的变化 （loss， addition， 许多变化都表现为规则的失去、增加、外借和变异）
Sound change语音系统的变化
Morphological change 形态系统的变化
Syntactic change句法系统的变化
Lexical change词汇系统的变化
Semantic change语义系统的变化Language family 语系
Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分
There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
世界上有4千多种语言，分别隶属印欧、汉藏等30个语系。
The Indo-European language family 印欧语系
It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
印欧语系锁骨历史语言学家研究最早和最深的一种语系。 印欧语系含大部分欧洲语言和印度次大陆语言在内的约150种语言。
The Indo-European Language Family
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages
The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.
The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.
The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
The Italian Group（意大利语族）：
Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.
The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.
The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc
The cause of language change 语言变化的原因
Sound assimilation语音同化
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
语音同化是指一个音受其毗邻的音的音响而发生音变， 使其发音变得与毗邻的音接近。
"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一
It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns
英语名词复数的形式有规则形态变化与不规则形态变化两种， 在英语演化过程中， 由于不规则形态趋于规则化， 所以复数形式趋向简化。Internal borrowing 内部借用
Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.
引起语言变化的又一原因是旨在减轻记忆复旦的语言规则的内部借用现象。
Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration规则的细化
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.
为了避免出现模棱两可、含糊不清的词句， 或为了提高语言表达上的准确性往往需要增加一些规则，致使句法规则更加细化。Social triggers社会因素
Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.
Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.
促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的， 更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化， 如：侵略战争、殖民化政策、政府推行的语言规划政策或标准化运动等。Cultural transmission 文化传播
One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.
Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"
语言变化的原因还在于， 层出不穷的新观念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语言习得
The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.
儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯， 儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或规则化的表达方式， 语言演化也就自然出现了。