[写作知识] About Cohesion

本帖最后由 Tdengyajiao 于 2010-4-1 15:04 编辑

Overview:
What is cohesion?
What strategies can we use to build cohesion between sentences?


What is cohesion?

Cohesion refers to connections between sentences. In a cohesive paragraph, each sentence is related to the next, and separate sentences work together to make a unified whole. Cohesive sentences and paragraphs seem to grow and depend on each other. Sentences and paragraphs that are not cohesive seem disjointed and often leave the reader confused.

Recognizing Cohesive Paragraphs

For example:

The following passage lacks cohesion:

Captain James Cook discovered the island of Hawaii in 1779. Mauna Kea, on Hawaii, is the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Cook might have noticed the many mountains on the island as he sailed into Kealakekua Bay. The island also has five major volcanoes. Mauna Loa, another mountain on the island, is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Kilauea is the most active volcano on earth. It continues to enlarge the land that makes up this largest island in the Hawaiian chain. The volcano sends forth lava continuously (The Longman Writer’s Companion 32).

We could change it to a cohesive passage like this:

In 1779, Captain James Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay and discovered the island of Hawaii. As he entered the bay, Cook might have noticed the many mountains on the island. Among them, perhaps he noticed Mauna Kea, the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Perhaps he spotted one or more of the five major volcanoes. One of these, Mauna Loa, is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Another, Kilauea, is the most active volcano on earth. It sends forth lava continuously. In addition, it keeps adding to the landmass of what is already the largest island in the Hawaiian chain (The Longman Writer's Companion 32).

Questions for Discussion

What makes the first paragraph awkward or "bumpy?" What makes the second paragraph cohesive? Do you notice any words that signal the reader and allow her to follow along? Highlight these words in the second paragraph.


What strategies can we use to build cohesion between sentences?

A. Reader Expectation

Have you ever finished someone's sentence or known what he or she was going to say before he or she said it? If so, it is because what he or she said before set up a series of expectations for you. Conversely, have you ever had to stop someone who was talking to you and ask him or her to explain what he or she just said? Most likely, your confusion was the result of the speaker’s failure to fulfill an expectation he or she had set up.

When we are reading, we usually cannot ask the writer to explain an idea further. Therefore, when we are writing, we MUST keep reader expectation in mind. We must occasionally stop writing and put ourselves in our reader's shoes to determine whether our writing makes sense. One very easy way to do this is to read your writing out loud and listen to it as though you are the reader.

What does reader expectation have to do with cohesion? Almost everything!! A reader's expectations come from what was written before. As readers, we expect the writer to stay on task and follow through. When the writer does not do this, the writing may seem disjointed. It is writing with roadblocks. The reader cannot read on because he or she has become confused.


B. Use the Known-New Contract

Notice how, in the following paragraph, each succeeding sentence is connected to what has gone before:

Portland, sixty miles from the Pacific Ocean, is by no means immune to the suburbanization that has sapped the vitality from many cities. Its suburbs now contain about two-thirds of the area's 1.4 million residents and about half of the area's jobs. Yet as the suburbs have grown, the downtown has become more attractive and popular than ever.

Downtown Portland has distinct edges. Its eastern border is the deep, navigable Willamette River, lined for more than a mile by Tom McCall Waterfront Park, a grassy, mostly level expanse suited to events that draw thousands such as the Rose Festival (Portland calls itself the "City of Roses"), a blues festival, and a summer symphony series. Its western border is the steep West Hills, which contain Washington Park, home of the International Rosefest Gardens, where more that 400 varieties of roses are cultivated, and Forest Park whose 4,800 acres of Douglas fir, alder, and maple, constitute one of the largest national preserves and hiking areas in any American city.

-Philip Langdon, "How Portland Does It," The Atlantic Monthly (November 1992). Sample reproduced from Rhetorical Grammar by Martha Kolln

Each sentence begins with "known" information and proceeds with "new" information. The known information is in the subject slot while the new information goes in the predicate slot. Read the sentences out loud, noticing how you stress the new information. Of course, not every kind of writing is going to flow this way. However, this is so usual that we can think of it as a "contract" - the reader has a right to expect each sentence to be connected to what has gone before by means of a known element.


C.Understand the “Road Signs” of Writing


Metadiscourse refers to signals that help the reader understand the writer’s message: it is discourse about discourse; signals that communicate about communication. You can think of these signals as road signs that clarify the purpose or direction of a passage. For example, "for example" is an example of such a road sign. When a sentence begins with "for example," the reader expects the writer to offer an example of a previously discussed concept.


Examples of Road Signs
       e.g. for example
       first, in the first place, finally, on the one hand/on the other hand
       not only . . . but also
       moreover, furthermore, likewise, also
       meanwhile, afterwards, previously
       however, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand
       therefore, so, consequently, as a result, of course
       nevertheless, yet, still, at any rate, after all, of course
       namely, for example, for instance, that is, in other words
       thus, then, in conclusion

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Exercise – Revise these passages to improve their cohesion. Think especially about reader expectation and the known-new contract.

1. The Gateway Arch at the edge of the Mississippi River in Saint Louis is the world’s tallest monument. Eero Saarinem designed the stainless steel structure that commemorates the Westward Movement.

2. Psychologists believe that color conveys emotional messages. Advertisers routinely manipulate consumers using color psychology. The pure white backgrounds and bold primary colors of detergent boxes are thought to influence buyers. Cleanliness and strength are associated with those colors.

3. Getting chilled or getting your feet wet will not cause a cold. Weather is not the culprit that causes the common cold. Viruses are to blame.

(NO FIXED ANSWERS FOR THESE EXERCISES, THEY ARE OPEN TO DISCUSSION)