MD5 加密解密

MD5 加密解密

安全加密-MD5算法研究


综述

　　MD5的全称是Message-Digest Algorithm 5（信息-摘要算法），在90年代初由MIT Laboratory for Computer Science和RSA Data Security Inc的Ronald L. Rivest开发出来，经MD2、MD3和MD4发展而来。它的作用是让大容量信息在用数字签名软件签署私人密匙前被"压缩"成一种保密的格式（就是把一个任意长度的字节串变换成一定长的大整数）。不管是MD2、MD4还是MD5，它们都需要获得一个随机长度的信息并产生一个128位的信息摘要。虽然这些算法的结构或多或少有些相似，但MD2的设计与MD4和MD5完全不同，那是因为MD2是为8位机器做过设计优化的，而MD4和MD5却是面向32位的电脑。这三个算法的描述和C语言源代码在Internet RFCs 1321中有详细的描述（http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1321.txt），这是一份最权威的文档，由Ronald L. Rivest在1992年8月向IEFT提交。

　　Rivest在1989年开发出MD2算法。在这个算法中，首先对信息进行数据补位，使信息的字节长度是16的倍数。然后，以一个16位的检验和追加到信息末尾。并且根据这个新产生的信息计算出散列值。后来，Rogier和Chauvaud发现如果忽略了检验和将产生MD2冲突。MD2算法的加密后结果是唯一的--既没有重复。

　　为了加强算法的安全性，Rivest在1990年又开发出MD4算法。MD4算法同样需要填补信息以确保信息的字节长度加上448后能被512整除（信息字节长度mod 512 = 448）。然后，一个以64位二进制表示的信息的最初长度被添加进来。信息被处理成512位Damg?rd/Merkle迭代结构的区块，而且每个区块要通过三个不同步骤的处理。Den Boer和Bosselaers以及其他人很快的发现了攻击MD4版本中第一步和第三步的漏洞。Dobbertin向大家演示了如何利用一部普通的个人电脑在几分钟内找到MD4完整版本中的冲突（这个冲突实际上是一种漏洞，它将导致对不同的内容进行加密却可能得到相同的加密后结果）。毫无疑问，MD4就此被淘汰掉了。

　　尽管MD4算法在安全上有个这么大的漏洞，但它对在其后才被开发出来的好几种信息安全加密算法的出现却有着不可忽视的引导作用。除了MD5以外，其中比较有名的还有SHA-1、RIPE-MD以及HAVAL等。

　　一年以后，即1991年，Rivest开发出技术上更为趋近成熟的MD5算法。它在MD4的基础上增加了"安全-带子"（Safety-Belts）的概念。虽然MD5比MD4稍微慢一些，但却更为安全。这个算法很明显的由四个和MD4设计有少许不同的步骤组成。在MD5算法中，信息-摘要的大小和填充的必要条件与MD4完全相同。Den Boer和Bosselaers曾发现MD5算法中的假冲突（Pseudo-Collisions），但除此之外就没有其他被发现的加密后结果了。

　　Van Oorschot和Wiener曾经考虑过一个在散列中暴力搜寻冲突的函数（Brute-Force Hash Function），而且他们猜测一个被设计专门用来搜索MD5冲突的机器（这台机器在1994年的制造成本大约是一百万美元）可以平均每24天就找到一个冲突。但单从1991年到2001年这10年间，竟没有出现替代MD5算法的MD6或被叫做其他什么名字的新算法这一点，我们就可以看出这个瑕疵并没有太多的影响MD5的安全性。上面所有这些都不足以成为MD5的在实际应用中的问题。并且，由于MD5算法的使用不需要支付任何版权费用的，所以在一般的情况下（非绝密应用领域。但即便是应用在绝密领域内，MD5也不失为一种非常优秀的中间技术），MD5怎么都应该算得上是非常安全的了。

　　算法的应用

　　MD5的典型应用是对一段信息（Message）产生信息摘要（Message-Digest），以防止被篡改。比如，在UNIX下有很多软件在下载的时候都有一个文件名相同，文件扩展名为.md5的文件，在这个文件中通常只有一行文本，大致结构如：

　　　MD5 (tanajiya.tar.gz) = 0ca175b9c0f726a831d895e269332461

　　这就是tanajiya.tar.gz文件的数字签名。MD5将整个文件当作一个大文本信息，通过其不可逆的字符串变换算法，产生了这个唯一的MD5信息摘要。如果在以后传播这个文件的过程中，无论文件的内容发生了任何形式的改变（包括人为修改或者下载过程中线路不稳定引起的传输错误等），只要你对这个文件重新计算MD5时就会发现信息摘要不相同，由此可以确定你得到的只是一个不正确的文件。如果再有一个第三方的认证机构，用MD5还可以防止文件作者的"抵赖"，这就是所谓的数字签名应用。

　　MD5还广泛用于加密和解密技术上。比如在UNIX系统中用户的密码就是以MD5（或其它类似的算法）经加密后存储在文件系统中。当用户登录的时候，系统把用户输入的密码计算成MD5值，然后再去和保存在文件系统中的MD5值进行比较，进而确定输入的密码是否正确。通过这样的步骤，系统在并不知道用户密码的明码的情况下就可以确定用户登录系统的合法性。这不但可以避免用户的密码被具有系统管理员权限的用户知道，而且还在一定程度上增加了密码被破解的难度。

　　正是因为这个原因，现在被黑客使用最多的一种破译密码的方法就是一种被称为"跑字典"的方法。有两种方法得到字典，一种是日常搜集的用做密码的字符串表，另一种是用排列组合方法生成的，先用MD5程序计算出这些字典项的MD5值，然后再用目标的MD5值在这个字典中检索。我们假设密码的最大长度为8位字节（8 Bytes），同时密码只能是字母和数字，共26+26+10=62个字符，排列组合出的字典的项数则是P(62,1)+P(62,2)….+P(62,8)，那也已经是一个很天文的数字了，存储这个字典就需要TB级的磁盘阵列，而且这种方法还有一个前提，就是能获得目标账户的密码MD5值的情况下才可以。这种加密技术被广泛的应用于UNIX系统中，这也是为什么UNIX系统比一般操作系统更为坚固一个重要原因。

　　算法描述

　　对MD5算法简要的叙述可以为：MD5以512位分组来处理输入的信息，且每一分组又被划分为16个32位子分组，经过了一系列的处理后，算法的输出由四个32位分组组成，将这四个32位分组级联后将生成一个128位散列值。

　　在MD5算法中，首先需要对信息进行填充，使其字节长度对512求余的结果等于448。因此，信息的字节长度（Bits Length）将被扩展至N*512+448，即N*64+56个字节（Bytes），N为一个正整数。填充的方法如下，在信息的后面填充一个1和无数个0，直到满足上面的条件时才停止用0对信息的填充。然后，在在这个结果后面附加一个以64位二进制表示的填充前信息长度。经过这两步的处理，现在的信息字节长度=N*512+448+64=(N+1)*512，即长度恰好是512的整数倍。这样做的原因是为满足后面处理中对信息长度的要求。

　　MD5中有四个32位被称作链接变量（Chaining Variable）的整数参数，他们分别为：A=0x01234567，B=0x89abcdef，C=0xfedcba98，D=0x76543210。

　　当设置好这四个链接变量后，就开始进入算法的四轮循环运算。循环的次数是信息中512位信息分组的数目。

　　将上面四个链接变量复制到另外四个变量中：A到a，B到b，C到c，D到d。

　　主循环有四轮（MD4只有三轮），每轮循环都很相似。第一轮进行16次操作。每次操作对a、b、c和d中的其中三个作一次非线性函数运算，然后将所得结果加上第四个变量，文本的一个子分组和一个常数。再将所得结果向右环移一个不定的数，并加上a、b、c或d中之一。最后用该结果取代a、b、c或d中之一。
以一下是每次操作中用到的四个非线性函数（每轮一个）。

　　　F(X,Y,Z) =(X&Y)|((~X)&Z)
　　　G(X,Y,Z) =(X&Z)|(Y&(~Z))
　　　H(X,Y,Z) =X^Y^Z
　　　I(X,Y,Z)=Y^(X|(~Z))
　　　（&是与，|是或，~是非，^是异或）

　　这四个函数的说明：如果X、Y和Z的对应位是独立和均匀的，那么结果的每一位也应是独立和均匀的。
F是一个逐位运算的函数。即，如果X，那么Y，否则Z。函数H是逐位奇偶操作符。

　　假设Mj表示消息的第j个子分组（从0到15），<<
　　　FF(a,b,c,d,Mj,s,ti)表示a=b+((a+(F(b,c,d)+Mj+ti)<< 　　　GG(a,b,c,d,Mj,s,ti)表示a=b+((a+(G(b,c,d)+Mj+ti)<< 　　　HH(a,b,c,d,Mj,s,ti)表示a=b+((a+(H(b,c,d)+Mj+ti)<< 　　　II(a,b,c,d,Mj,s,ti)表示a=b+((a+(I(b,c,d)+Mj+ti)<<
　　这四轮（64步）是：

　　第一轮

　　　FF(a,b,c,d,M0,7,0xd76aa478)
　　　FF(d,a,b,c,M1,12,0xe8c7b756)
　　　FF(c,d,a,b,M2,17,0x242070db)
FF(b,c,d,a,M3,22,0xc1bdceee)
　　　FF(a,b,c,d,M4,7,0xf57c0faf)
　　　FF(d,a,b,c,M5,12,0x4787c62a)
　　　FF(c,d,a,b,M6,17,0xa8304613)
　　　FF(b,c,d,a,M7,22,0xfd469501)
　　　FF(a,b,c,d,M8,7,0x698098d8)
　　　FF(d,a,b,c,M9,12,0x8b44f7af)
　　　FF(c,d,a,b,M10,17,0xffff5bb1)
　　　FF(b,c,d,a,M11,22,0x895cd7be)
　　　FF(a,b,c,d,M12,7,0x6b901122)
　　　FF(d,a,b,c,M13,12,0xfd987193)
　　　FF(c,d,a,b,M14,17,0xa679438e)
　　　FF(b,c,d,a,M15,22,0x49b40821)

　　第二轮

　　　GG(a,b,c,d,M1,5,0xf61e2562)
　　　GG(d,a,b,c,M6,9,0xc040b340)
　　　GG(c,d,a,b,M11,14,0x265e5a51)
　　　GG(b,c,d,a,M0,20,0xe9b6c7aa)
　　　GG(a,b,c,d,M5,5,0xd62f105d)
　　　GG(d,a,b,c,M10,9,0x02441453)
　　　GG(c,d,a,b,M15,14,0xd8a1e681)
　　　GG(b,c,d,a,M4,20,0xe7d3fbc8)
　　　GG(a,b,c,d,M9,5,0x21e1cde6)
　　　GG(d,a,b,c,M14,9,0xc33707d6)
　　　GG(c,d,a,b,M3,14,0xf4d50d87)
　　　GG(b,c,d,a,M8,20,0x455a14ed)
　　　GG(a,b,c,d,M13,5,0xa9e3e905)
　　　GG(d,a,b,c,M2,9,0xfcefa3f8)
　　　GG(c,d,a,b,M7,14,0x676f02d9)
　　　GG(b,c,d,a,M12,20,0x8d2a4c8a)

　　第三轮

　　　HH(a,b,c,d,M5,4,0xfffa3942)
　　　HH(d,a,b,c,M8,11,0x8771f681)
　　　HH(c,d,a,b,M11,16,0x6d9d6122)
　　　HH(b,c,d,a,M14,23,0xfde5380c)
　　　HH(a,b,c,d,M1,4,0xa4beea44)
　　　HH(d,a,b,c,M4,11,0x4bdecfa9)
　　　HH(c,d,a,b,M7,16,0xf6bb4b60)
　　　HH(b,c,d,a,M10,23,0xbebfbc70)
　　　HH(a,b,c,d,M13,4,0x289b7ec6)
　　　HH(d,a,b,c,M0,11,0xeaa127fa)
　　　HH(c,d,a,b,M3,16,0xd4ef3085)
　　　HH(b,c,d,a,M6,23,0x04881d05)
　　　HH(a,b,c,d,M9,4,0xd9d4d039)
　　　HH(d,a,b,c,M12,11,0xe6db99e5)
　　　HH(c,d,a,b,M15,16,0x1fa27cf8)
　　　HH(b,c,d,a,M2,23,0xc4ac5665)

　　第四轮

　　　II(a,b,c,d,M0,6,0xf4292244)
　　　II(d,a,b,c,M7,10,0x432aff97)
　　　II(c,d,a,b,M14,15,0xab9423a7)
　　　II(b,c,d,a,M5,21,0xfc93a039)
　　　II(a,b,c,d,M12,6,0x655b59c3)
　　　II(d,a,b,c,M3,10,0x8f0ccc92)
　　　II(c,d,a,b,M10,15,0xffeff47d)
　　　II(b,c,d,a,M1,21,0x85845dd1)
　　　II(a,b,c,d,M8,6,0x6fa87e4f)
　　　II(d,a,b,c,M15,10,0xfe2ce6e0)
　　　II(c,d,a,b,M6,15,0xa3014314)
　　　II(b,c,d,a,M13,21,0x4e0811a1)
　　　II(a,b,c,d,M4,6,0xf7537e82)
　　　II(d,a,b,c,M11,10,0xbd3af235)
　　　II(c,d,a,b,M2,15,0x2ad7d2bb)
　　　II(b,c,d,a,M9,21,0xeb86d391)

　　常数ti可以如下选择：

　　在第i步中，ti是4294967296*abs(sin(i))的整数部分，i的单位是弧度。(4294967296等于2的32次方)
所有这些完成之后，将A、B、C、D分别加上a、b、c、d。然后用下一分组数据继续运行算法，最后的输出是A、B、C和D的级联。

　　当你按照我上面所说的方法实现MD5算法以后，你可以用以下几个信息对你做出来的程序作一个简单的测试，看看程序有没有错误。

　　　MD5 ("") = d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e
　　　MD5 ("a") = 0cc175b9c0f1b6a831c399e269772661
　　　MD5 ("abc") = 900150983cd24fb0d6963f7d28e17f72
　　　MD5 ("message digest") = f96b697d7cb7938d525a2f31aaf161d0
　　　MD5 ("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz") = c3fcd3d76192e4007dfb496cca67e13b
　　　MD5 ("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789") =
d174ab98d277d9f5a5611c2c9f419d9f
　　　MD5 ("123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789
01234567890") = 57edf4a22be3c955ac49da2e2107b67a

　　如果你用上面的信息分别对你做的MD5算法实例做测试，最后得出的结论和标准答案完全一样，那我就要在这里象你道一声祝贺了。要知道，我的程序在第一次编译成功的时候是没有得出和上面相同的结果的。


　　MD5的安全性

　　MD5相对MD4所作的改进：

　　　1. 增加了第四轮；

　　　2. 每一步均有唯一的加法常数；

　　　3. 为减弱第二轮中函数G的对称性从(X&Y)|(X&Z)|(Y&Z)变为(X&Z)|(Y&(~Z))；

　　　4. 第一步加上了上一步的结果，这将引起更快的雪崩效应；

　　　5. 改变了第二轮和第三轮中访问消息子分组的次序，使其更不相似；

　　　6. 近似优化了每一轮中的循环左移位移量以实现更快的雪崩效应。各轮的位移量互不相同。



对该文的评论 人气：3592
mjk (2002-5-8 9:28:56)

好文章

Nizvoo (2002-5-6 9:43:49)

Network Working Group R. Rivest Request for Comments: 1321 MIT Laboratory for Computer Science and RSA Data Security, Inc. April 1992 The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm Status of this Memo This memo provides information for the Internet community. It does not specify an Internet standard. Distribution of this memo is unlimited. Acknowlegements We would like to thank Don Coppersmith, Burt Kaliski, Ralph Merkle, David Chaum, and Noam Nisan for numerous helpful comments and suggestions. Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary 1 2. Terminology and Notation 2 3. MD5 Algorithm Description 3 4. Summary 6 5. Differences Between MD4 and MD5 6 References 7 APPENDIX A - Reference Implementation 7 Security Considerations 21 Author's Address 21 1. Executive Summary This document describes the MD5 message-digest algorithm. The algorithm takes as input a message of arbitrary length and produces as output a 128-bit "fingerprint" or "message digest" of the input. It is conjectured that it is computationally infeasible to produce two messages having the same message digest, or to produce any message having a given prespecified target message digest. The MD5 algorithm is intended for digital signature applications, where a large file must be "compressed" in a secure manner before being encrypted with a private (secret) key under a public-key cryptosystem such as RSA. Rivest [Page 1] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 The MD5 algorithm is designed to be quite fast on 32-bit machines. In addition, the MD5 algorithm does not require any large substitution tables; the algorithm can be coded quite compactly. The MD5 algorithm is an extension of the MD4 message-digest algorithm 1,2]. MD5 is slightly slower than MD4, but is more "conservative" in design. MD5 was designed because it was felt that MD4 was perhaps being adopted for use more quickly than justified by the existing critical review; because MD4 was designed to be exceptionally fast, it is "at the edge" in terms of risking successful cryptanalytic attack. MD5 backs off a bit, giving up a little in speed for a much greater likelihood of ultimate security. It incorporates some suggestions made by various reviewers, and contains additional optimizations. The MD5 algorithm is being placed in the public domain for review and possible adoption as a standard. For OSI-based applications, MD5's object identifier is md5 OBJECT IDENTIFIER ::= iso(1) member-body(2) US(840) rsadsi(113549) digestAlgorithm(2) 5} In the X.509 type AlgorithmIdentifier [3], the parameters for MD5 should have type NULL. 2. Terminology and Notation In this document a "word" is a 32-bit quantity and a "byte" is an eight-bit quantity. A sequence of bits can be interpreted in a natural manner as a sequence of bytes, where each consecutive group of eight bits is interpreted as a byte with the high-order (most significant) bit of each byte listed first. Similarly, a sequence of bytes can be interpreted as a sequence of 32-bit words, where each consecutive group of four bytes is interpreted as a word with the low-order (least significant) byte given first. Let x_i denote "x sub i". If the subscript is an expression, we surround it in braces, as in x_{i+1}. Similarly, we use ^ for superscripts (exponentiation), so that x^i denotes x to the i-th power. Let the symbol "+" denote addition of words (i.e., modulo-2^32 addition). Let X <<< s denote the 32-bit value obtained by circularly shifting (rotating) X left by s bit positions. Let not(X) denote the bit-wise complement of X, and let X v Y denote the bit-wise OR of X and Y. Let X xor Y denote the bit-wise XOR of X and Y, and let XY denote the bit-wise AND of X and Y. Rivest [Page 2] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 3. MD5 Algorithm Description We begin by supposing that we have a b-bit message as input, and that we wish to find its message digest. Here b is an arbitrary nonnegative integer; b may be zero, it need not be a multiple of eight, and it may be arbitrarily large. We imagine the bits of the message written down as follows: m_0 m_1 ... m_{b-1} The following five steps are performed to compute the message digest of the message. 3.1 Step 1. Append Padding Bits The message is "padded" (extended) so that its length (in bits) is congruent to 448, modulo 512. That is, the message is extended so that it is just 64 bits shy of being a multiple of 512 bits long. Padding is always performed, even if the length of the message is already congruent to 448, modulo 512. Padding is performed as follows: a single "1" bit is appended to the message, and then "0" bits are appended so that the length in bits of the padded message becomes congruent to 448, modulo 512. In all, at least one bit and at most 512 bits are appended. 3.2 Step 2. Append Length A 64-bit representation of b (the length of the message before the padding bits were added) is appended to the result of the previous step. In the unlikely event that b is greater than 2^64, then only the low-order 64 bits of b are used. (These bits are appended as two 32-bit words and appended low-order word first in accordance with the previous conventions.) At this point the resulting message (after padding with bits and with b) has a length that is an exact multiple of 512 bits. Equivalently, this message has a length that is an exact multiple of 16 (32-bit) words. Let M[0 ... N-1] denote the words of the resulting message, where N is a multiple of 16. 3.3 Step 3. Initialize MD Buffer A four-word buffer (A,B,C,D) is used to compute the message digest. Here each of A, B, C, D is a 32-bit register. These registers are initialized to the following values in hexadecimal, low-order bytes first): Rivest [Page 3] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 word A: 01 23 45 67 word B: 89 ab cd ef word C: fe dc ba 98 word D: 76 54 32 10 3.4 Step 4. Process Message in 16-Word Blocks We first define four auxiliary functions that each take as input three 32-bit words and produce as output one 32-bit word. F(X,Y,Z) = XY v not(X) Z G(X,Y,Z) = XZ v Y not(Z) H(X,Y,Z) = X xor Y xor Z I(X,Y,Z) = Y xor (X v not(Z)) In each bit position F acts as a conditional: if X then Y else Z. The function F could have been defined using + instead of v since XY and not(X)Z will never have 1's in the same bit position.) It is interesting to note that if the bits of X, Y, and Z are independent and unbiased, the each bit of F(X,Y,Z) will be independent and unbiased. The functions G, H, and I are similar to the function F, in that they act in "bitwise parallel" to produce their output from the bits of X, Y, and Z, in such a manner that if the corresponding bits of X, Y, and Z are independent and unbiased, then each bit of G(X,Y,Z), H(X,Y,Z), and I(X,Y,Z) will be independent and unbiased. Note that the function H is the bit-wise "xor" or "parity" function of its inputs. This step uses a 64-element table T[1 ... 64] constructed from the sine function. Let T denote the i-th element of the table, which is equal to the integer part of 4294967296 times abs(sin(i)), where i is in radians. The elements of the table are given in the appendix. Do the following: /* Process each 16-word block. */ For i = 0 to N/16-1 do /* Copy block i into X. */ For j = 0 to 15 do Set X[j] to M[i*16+j]. end /* of loop on j */ /* Save A as AA, B as BB, C as CC, and D as DD. */ AA = A BB = B Rivest [Page 4] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 CC = C DD = D /* Round 1. */ /* Let [abcd k s i] denote the operation a = b + ((a + F(b,c,d) + X[k] + T) <<< s). */ /* Do the following 16 operations. */ [ABCD 0 7 1] [DABC 1 12 2] [CDAB 2 17 3] [BCDA 3 22 4] [ABCD 4 7 5] [DABC 5 12 6] [CDAB 6 17 7] [BCDA 7 22 8] [ABCD 8 7 9] [DABC 9 12 10] [CDAB 10 17 11] [BCDA 11 22 12] [ABCD 12 7 13] [DABC 13 12 14] [CDAB 14 17 15] [BCDA 15 22 16] /* Round 2. */ /* Let [abcd k s i] denote the operation a = b + ((a + G(b,c,d) + X[k] + T) <<< s). */ /* Do the following 16 operations. */ [ABCD 1 5 17] [DABC 6 9 18] [CDAB 11 14 19] [BCDA 0 20 20] [ABCD 5 5 21] [DABC 10 9 22] [CDAB 15 14 23] [BCDA 4 20 24] [ABCD 9 5 25] [DABC 14 9 26] [CDAB 3 14 27] [BCDA 8 20 28] [ABCD 13 5 29] [DABC 2 9 30] [CDAB 7 14 31] [BCDA 12 20 32] /* Round 3. */ /* Let [abcd k s t] denote the operation a = b + ((a + H(b,c,d) + X[k] + T) <<< s). */ /* Do the following 16 operations. */ [ABCD 5 4 33] [DABC 8 11 34] [CDAB 11 16 35] [BCDA 14 23 36] [ABCD 1 4 37] [DABC 4 11 38] [CDAB 7 16 39] [BCDA 10 23 40] [ABCD 13 4 41] [DABC 0 11 42] [CDAB 3 16 43] [BCDA 6 23 44] [ABCD 9 4 45] [DABC 12 11 46] [CDAB 15 16 47] [BCDA 2 23 48] /* Round 4. */ /* Let [abcd k s t] denote the operation a = b + ((a + I(b,c,d) + X[k] + T) <<< s). */ /* Do the following 16 operations. */ [ABCD 0 6 49] [DABC 7 10 50] [CDAB 14 15 51] [BCDA 5 21 52] [ABCD 12 6 53] [DABC 3 10 54] [CDAB 10 15 55] [BCDA 1 21 56] [ABCD 8 6 57] [DABC 15 10 58] [CDAB 6 15 59] [BCDA 13 21 60] [ABCD 4 6 61] [DABC 11 10 62] [CDAB 2 15 63] [BCDA 9 21 64] /* Then perform the following additions. (That is increment each of the four registers by the value it had before this block was started.) */ A = A + AA B = B + BB C = C + CC D = D + DD end /* of loop on i */ Rivest [Page 5] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 3.5 Step 5. Output The message digest produced as output is A, B, C, D. That is, we begin with the low-order byte of A, and end with the high-order byte of D. This completes the description of MD5. A reference implementation in C is given in the appendix. 4. Summary The MD5 message-digest algorithm is simple to implement, and provides a "fingerprint" or message digest of a message of arbitrary length. It is conjectured that the difficulty of coming up with two messages having the same message digest is on the order of 2^64 operations, and that the difficulty of coming up with any message having a given message digest is on the order of 2^128 operations. The MD5 algorithm has been carefully scrutinized for weaknesses. It is, however, a relatively new algorithm and further security analysis is of course justified, as is the case with any new proposal of this sort. 5. Differences Between MD4 and MD5 The following are the differences between MD4 and MD5: 1. A fourth round has been added. 2. Each step now has a unique additive constant. 3. The function g in round 2 was changed from (XY v XZ v YZ) to (XZ v Y not(Z)) to make g less symmetric. 4. Each step now adds in the result of the previous step. This promotes a faster "avalanche effect". 5. The order in which input words are accessed in rounds 2 and 3 is changed, to make these patterns less like each other. 6. The shift amounts in each round have been approximately optimized, to yield a faster "avalanche effect." The shifts in different rounds are distinct. Rivest [Page 6] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 References [1] Rivest, R., "The MD4 Message Digest Algorithm", RFC 1320, MIT and RSA Data Security, Inc., April 1992. [2] Rivest, R., "The MD4 message digest algorithm", in A.J. Menezes and S.A. Vanstone, editors, Advances in Cryptology - CRYPTO '90 Proceedings, pages 303-311, Springer-Verlag, 1991. [3] CCITT Recommendation X.509 (1988), "The Directory - Authentication Framework." APPENDIX A - Reference Implementation This appendix contains the following files taken from RSAREF: A Cryptographic Toolkit for Privacy-Enhanced Mail: global.h -- global header file md5.h -- header file for MD5 md5c.c -- source code for MD5 For more information on RSAREF, send email to <rsaref@rsa.com>. The appendix also includes the following file: mddriver.c -- test driver for MD2, MD4 and MD5 The driver compiles for MD5 by default but can compile for MD2 or MD4 if the symbol MD is defined on the C compiler command line as 2 or 4. The implementation is portable and should work on many different plaforms. However, it is not difficult to optimize the implementation on particular platforms, an exercise left to the reader. For example, on "little-endian" platforms where the lowest-addressed byte in a 32- bit word is the least significant and there are no alignment restrictions, the call to Decode in MD5Transform can be replaced with a typecast. A.1 global.h /* GLOBAL.H - RSAREF types and constants */ /* PROTOTYPES should be set to one if and only if the compiler supports function argument prototyping. The following makes PROTOTYPES default to 0 if it has not already Rivest [Page 7] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 been defined with C compiler flags. */ #ifndef PROTOTYPES #define PROTOTYPES 0 #endif /* POINTER defines a generic pointer type */ typedef unsigned char *POINTER; /* UINT2 defines a two byte word */ typedef unsigned short int UINT2; /* UINT4 defines a four byte word */ typedef unsigned long int UINT4; /* PROTO_LIST is defined depending on how PROTOTYPES is defined above. If using PROTOTYPES, then PROTO_LIST returns the list, otherwise it returns an empty list. */ #if PROTOTYPES #define PROTO_LIST(list) list #else #define PROTO_LIST(list) () #endif A.2 md5.h /* MD5.H - header file for MD5C.C */ /* Copyright (C) 1991-2, RSA Data Security, Inc. Created 1991. All rights reserved. License to copy and use this software is granted provided that it is identified as the "RSA Data Security, Inc. MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm" in all material mentioning or referencing this software or this function. License is also granted to make and use derivative works provided that such works are identified as "derived from the RSA Data Security, Inc. MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm" in all material mentioning or referencing the derived work. RSA Data Security, Inc. makes no representations concerning either the merchantability of this software or the suitability of this software for any particular purpose. It is provided "as is" without express or implied warranty of any kind. Rivest [Page 8] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 These notices must be retained in any copies of any part of this documentation and/or software. */ /* MD5 context. */ typedef struct { UINT4 state[4]; /* state (ABCD) */ UINT4 count[2]; /* number of bits, modulo 2^64 (lsb first) */ unsigned char buffer[64]; /* input buffer */ } MD5_CTX; void MD5Init PROTO_LIST ((MD5_CTX *)); void MD5Update PROTO_LIST ((MD5_CTX *, unsigned char *, unsigned int)); void MD5Final PROTO_LIST ((unsigned char [16], MD5_CTX *)); A.3 md5c.c /* MD5C.C - RSA Data Security, Inc., MD5 message-digest algorithm */ /* Copyright (C) 1991-2, RSA Data Security, Inc. Created 1991. All rights reserved. License to copy and use this software is granted provided that it is identified as the "RSA Data Security, Inc. MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm" in all material mentioning or referencing this software or this function. License is also granted to make and use derivative works provided that such works are identified as "derived from the RSA Data Security, Inc. MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm" in all material mentioning or referencing the derived work. RSA Data Security, Inc. makes no representations concerning either the merchantability of this software or the suitability of this software for any particular purpose. It is provided "as is" without express or implied warranty of any kind. These notices must be retained in any copies of any part of this documentation and/or software. */ #include "global.h" #include "md5.h" /* Constants for MD5Transform routine. */ Rivest [Page 9] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 #define S11 7 #define S12 12 #define S13 17 #define S14 22 #define S21 5 #define S22 9 #define S23 14 #define S24 20 #define S31 4 #define S32 11 #define S33 16 #define S34 23 #define S41 6 #define S42 10 #define S43 15 #define S44 21 static void MD5Transform PROTO_LIST ((UINT4 [4], unsigned char [64])); static void Encode PROTO_LIST ((unsigned char *, UINT4 *, unsigned int)); static void Decode PROTO_LIST ((UINT4 *, unsigned char *, unsigned int)); static void MD5_memcpy PROTO_LIST ((POINTER, POINTER, unsigned int)); static void MD5_memset PROTO_LIST ((POINTER, int, unsigned int)); static unsigned char PADDING[64] = { 0x80, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }; /* F, G, H and I are basic MD5 functions. */ #define F(x, y, z) (((x) & (y)) | ((~x) & (z))) #define G(x, y, z) (((x) & (z)) | ((y) & (~z))) #define H(x, y, z) ((x) ^ (y) ^ (z)) #define I(x, y, z) ((y) ^ ((x) | (~z))) /* ROTATE_LEFT rotates x left n bits. */ #define ROTATE_LEFT(x, n) (((x) << (n)) | ((x) >> (32-(n)))) /* FF, GG, HH, and II transformations for rounds 1, 2, 3, and 4. Rotation is separate from addition to prevent recomputation. */ #define FF(a, b, c, d, x, s, ac) { \ (a) += F ((b), (c), (d)) + (x) + (UINT4)(ac); \ (a) = ROTATE_LEFT ((a), (s)); \ Rivest [Page 10] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 (a) += (b); \ } #define GG(a, b, c, d, x, s, ac) { \ (a) += G ((b), (c), (d)) + (x) + (UINT4)(ac); \ (a) = ROTATE_LEFT ((a), (s)); \ (a) += (b); \ } #define HH(a, b, c, d, x, s, ac) { \ (a) += H ((b), (c), (d)) + (x) + (UINT4)(ac); \ (a) = ROTATE_LEFT ((a), (s)); \ (a) += (b); \ } #define II(a, b, c, d, x, s, ac) { \ (a) += I ((b), (c), (d)) + (x) + (UINT4)(ac); \ (a) = ROTATE_LEFT ((a), (s)); \ (a) += (b); \ } /* MD5 initialization. Begins an MD5 operation, writing a new context. */ void MD5Init (context) MD5_CTX *context; /* context */ { context->count[0] = context->count[1] = 0; /* Load magic initialization constants. */ context->state[0] = 0x67452301; context->state[1] = 0xefcdab89; context->state[2] = 0x98badcfe; context->state[3] = 0x10325476; } /* MD5 block update operation. Continues an MD5 message-digest operation, processing another message block, and updating the context. */ void MD5Update (context, input, inputLen) MD5_CTX *context; /* context */ unsigned char *input; /* input block */ unsigned int inputLen; /* length of input block */ { unsigned int i, index, partLen; /* Compute number of bytes mod 64 */ index = (unsigned int)((context->count[0] >> 3) & 0x3F); /* Update number of bits */ if ((context->count[0] += ((UINT4)inputLen << 3)) Rivest [Page 11] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 < ((UINT4)inputLen << 3)) context->count[1]++; context->count[1] += ((UINT4)inputLen >> 29); partLen = 64 - index; /* Transform as many times as possible. */ if (inputLen >= partLen) { MD5_memcpy ((POINTER)&context->buffer[index], (POINTER)input, partLen); MD5Transform (context->state, context->buffer); for (i = partLen; i + 63 < inputLen; i += 64) MD5Transform (context->state, &input); index = 0; } else i = 0; /* Buffer remaining input */ MD5_memcpy ((POINTER)&context->buffer[index], (POINTER)&input, inputLen-i); } /* MD5 finalization. Ends an MD5 message-digest operation, writing the the message digest and zeroizing the context. */ void MD5Final (digest, context) unsigned char digest[16]; /* message digest */ MD5_CTX *context; /* context */ { unsigned char bits[8]; unsigned int index, padLen; /* Save number of bits */ Encode (bits, context->count, 8); /* Pad out to 56 mod 64. */ index = (unsigned int)((context->count[0] >> 3) & 0x3f); padLen = (index < 56) ? (56 - index) : (120 - index); MD5Update (context, PADDING, padLen); /* Append length (before padding) */ MD5Update (context, bits, 8); Rivest [Page 12] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 /* Store state in digest */ Encode (digest, context->state, 16); /* Zeroize sensitive information. */ MD5_memset ((POINTER)context, 0, sizeof (*context)); } /* MD5 basic transformation. Transforms state based on block. */ static void MD5Transform (state, block) UINT4 state[4]; unsigned char block[64]; { UINT4 a = state[0], b = state[1], c = state[2], d = state[3], x[16]; Decode (x, block, 64); /* Round 1 */ FF (a, b, c, d, x[ 0], S11, 0xd76aa478); /* 1 */ FF (d, a, b, c, x[ 1], S12, 0xe8c7b756); /* 2 */ FF (c, d, a, b, x[ 2], S13, 0x242070db); /* 3 */ FF (b, c, d, a, x[ 3], S14, 0xc1bdceee); /* 4 */ FF (a, b, c, d, x[ 4], S11, 0xf57c0faf); /* 5 */ FF (d, a, b, c, x[ 5], S12, 0x4787c62a); /* 6 */ FF (c, d, a, b, x[ 6], S13, 0xa8304613); /* 7 */ FF (b, c, d, a, x[ 7], S14, 0xfd469501); /* 8 */ FF (a, b, c, d, x[ 8], S11, 0x698098d8); /* 9 */ FF (d, a, b, c, x[ 9], S12, 0x8b44f7af); /* 10 */ FF (c, d, a, b, x[10], S13, 0xffff5bb1); /* 11 */ FF (b, c, d, a, x[11], S14, 0x895cd7be); /* 12 */ FF (a, b, c, d, x[12], S11, 0x6b901122); /* 13 */ FF (d, a, b, c, x[13], S12, 0xfd987193); /* 14 */ FF (c, d, a, b, x[14], S13, 0xa679438e); /* 15 */ FF (b, c, d, a, x[15], S14, 0x49b40821); /* 16 */ /* Round 2 */ GG (a, b, c, d, x[ 1], S21, 0xf61e2562); /* 17 */ GG (d, a, b, c, x[ 6], S22, 0xc040b340); /* 18 */ GG (c, d, a, b, x[11], S23, 0x265e5a51); /* 19 */ GG (b, c, d, a, x[ 0], S24, 0xe9b6c7aa); /* 20 */ GG (a, b, c, d, x[ 5], S21, 0xd62f105d); /* 21 */ GG (d, a, b, c, x[10], S22, 0x2441453); /* 22 */ GG (c, d, a, b, x[15], S23, 0xd8a1e681); /* 23 */ GG (b, c, d, a, x[ 4], S24, 0xe7d3fbc8); /* 24 */ GG (a, b, c, d, x[ 9], S21, 0x21e1cde6); /* 25 */ GG (d, a, b, c, x[14], S22, 0xc33707d6); /* 26 */ GG (c, d, a, b, x[ 3], S23, 0xf4d50d87); /* 27 */ Rivest [Page 13] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 GG (b, c, d, a, x[ 8], S24, 0x455a14ed); /* 28 */ GG (a, b, c, d, x[13], S21, 0xa9e3e905); /* 29 */ GG (d, a, b, c, x[ 2], S22, 0xfcefa3f8); /* 30 */ GG (c, d, a, b, x[ 7], S23, 0x676f02d9); /* 31 */ GG (b, c, d, a, x[12], S24, 0x8d2a4c8a); /* 32 */ /* Round 3 */ HH (a, b, c, d, x[ 5], S31, 0xfffa3942); /* 33 */ HH (d, a, b, c, x[ 8], S32, 0x8771f681); /* 34 */ HH (c, d, a, b, x[11], S33, 0x6d9d6122); /* 35 */ HH (b, c, d, a, x[14], S34, 0xfde5380c); /* 36 */ HH (a, b, c, d, x[ 1], S31, 0xa4beea44); /* 37 */ HH (d, a, b, c, x[ 4], S32, 0x4bdecfa9); /* 38 */ HH (c, d, a, b, x[ 7], S33, 0xf6bb4b60); /* 39 */ HH (b, c, d, a, x[10], S34, 0xbebfbc70); /* 40 */ HH (a, b, c, d, x[13], S31, 0x289b7ec6); /* 41 */ HH (d, a, b, c, x[ 0], S32, 0xeaa127fa); /* 42 */ HH (c, d, a, b, x[ 3], S33, 0xd4ef3085); /* 43 */ HH (b, c, d, a, x[ 6], S34, 0x4881d05); /* 44 */ HH (a, b, c, d, x[ 9], S31, 0xd9d4d039); /* 45 */ HH (d, a, b, c, x[12], S32, 0xe6db99e5); /* 46 */ HH (c, d, a, b, x[15], S33, 0x1fa27cf8); /* 47 */ HH (b, c, d, a, x[ 2], S34, 0xc4ac5665); /* 48 */ /* Round 4 */ II (a, b, c, d, x[ 0], S41, 0xf4292244); /* 49 */ II (d, a, b, c, x[ 7], S42, 0x432aff97); /* 50 */ II (c, d, a, b, x[14], S43, 0xab9423a7); /* 51 */ II (b, c, d, a, x[ 5], S44, 0xfc93a039); /* 52 */ II (a, b, c, d, x[12], S41, 0x655b59c3); /* 53 */ II (d, a, b, c, x[ 3], S42, 0x8f0ccc92); /* 54 */ II (c, d, a, b, x[10], S43, 0xffeff47d); /* 55 */ II (b, c, d, a, x[ 1], S44, 0x85845dd1); /* 56 */ II (a, b, c, d, x[ 8], S41, 0x6fa87e4f); /* 57 */ II (d, a, b, c, x[15], S42, 0xfe2ce6e0); /* 58 */ II (c, d, a, b, x[ 6], S43, 0xa3014314); /* 59 */ II (b, c, d, a, x[13], S44, 0x4e0811a1); /* 60 */ II (a, b, c, d, x[ 4], S41, 0xf7537e82); /* 61 */ II (d, a, b, c, x[11], S42, 0xbd3af235); /* 62 */ II (c, d, a, b, x[ 2], S43, 0x2ad7d2bb); /* 63 */ II (b, c, d, a, x[ 9], S44, 0xeb86d391); /* 64 */ state[0] += a; state[1] += b; state[2] += c; state[3] += d; /* Zeroize sensitive information. Rivest [Page 14] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 */ MD5_memset ((POINTER)x, 0, sizeof (x)); } /* Encodes input (UINT4) into output (unsigned char). Assumes len is a multiple of 4. */ static void Encode (output, input, len) unsigned char *output; UINT4 *input; unsigned int len; { unsigned int i, j; for (i = 0, j = 0; j < len; i++, j += 4) { output[j] = (unsigned char)(input & 0xff); output[j+1] = (unsigned char)((input >> 8) & 0xff); output[j+2] = (unsigned char)((input >> 16) & 0xff); output[j+3] = (unsigned char)((input >> 24) & 0xff); } } /* Decodes input (unsigned char) into output (UINT4). Assumes len is a multiple of 4. */ static void Decode (output, input, len) UINT4 *output; unsigned char *input; unsigned int len; { unsigned int i, j; for (i = 0, j = 0; j < len; i++, j += 4) output = ((UINT4)input[j]) | (((UINT4)input[j+1]) << 8) | (((UINT4)input[j+2]) << 16) | (((UINT4)input[j+3]) << 24); } /* Note: Replace "for loop" with standard memcpy if possible. */ static void MD5_memcpy (output, input, len) POINTER output; POINTER input; unsigned int len; { unsigned int i; for (i = 0; i < len; i++) Rivest [Page 15] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 output = input; } /* Note: Replace "for loop" with standard memset if possible. */ static void MD5_memset (output, value, len) POINTER output; int value; unsigned int len; { unsigned int i; for (i = 0; i < len; i++) ((char *)output) = (char)value; } A.4 mddriver.c /* MDDRIVER.C - test driver for MD2, MD4 and MD5 */ /* Copyright (C) 1990-2, RSA Data Security, Inc. Created 1990. All rights reserved. RSA Data Security, Inc. makes no representations concerning either the merchantability of this software or the suitability of this software for any particular purpose. It is provided "as is" without express or implied warranty of any kind. These notices must be retained in any copies of any part of this documentation and/or software. */ /* The following makes MD default to MD5 if it has not already been defined with C compiler flags. */ #ifndef MD #define MD MD5 #endif #include #include #include #include "global.h" #if MD == 2 #include "md2.h" #endif #if MD == 4 Rivest [Page 16] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 #include "md4.h" #endif #if MD == 5 #include "md5.h" #endif /* Length of test block, number of test blocks. */ #define TEST_BLOCK_LEN 1000 #define TEST_BLOCK_COUNT 1000 static void MDString PROTO_LIST ((char *)); static void MDTimeTrial PROTO_LIST ((void)); static void MDTestSuite PROTO_LIST ((void)); static void MDFile PROTO_LIST ((char *)); static void MDFilter PROTO_LIST ((void)); static void MDPrint PROTO_LIST ((unsigned char [16])); #if MD == 2 #define MD_CTX MD2_CTX #define MDInit MD2Init #define MDUpdate MD2Update #define MDFinal MD2Final #endif #if MD == 4 #define MD_CTX MD4_CTX #define MDInit MD4Init #define MDUpdate MD4Update #define MDFinal MD4Final #endif #if MD == 5 #define MD_CTX MD5_CTX #define MDInit MD5Init #define MDUpdate MD5Update #define MDFinal MD5Final #endif /* Main driver. Arguments (may be any combination): -sstring - digests string -t - runs time trial -x - runs test script filename - digests file (none) - digests standard input */ int main (argc, argv) int argc; Rivest [Page 17] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 char *argv[]; { int i; if (argc > 1) for (i = 1; i < argc; i++) if (argv[0] == '-' && argv[1] == 's') MDString (argv + 2); else if (strcmp (argv, "-t") == 0) MDTimeTrial (); else if (strcmp (argv, "-x") == 0) MDTestSuite (); else MDFile (argv); else MDFilter (); return (0); } /* Digests a string and prints the result. */ static void MDString (string) char *string; { MD_CTX context; unsigned char digest[16]; unsigned int len = strlen (string); MDInit (&context); MDUpdate (&context, string, len); MDFinal (digest, &context); printf ("MD%d (\"%s\") = ", MD, string); MDPrint (digest); printf ("\n"); } /* Measures the time to digest TEST_BLOCK_COUNT TEST_BLOCK_LEN-byte blocks. */ static void MDTimeTrial () { MD_CTX context; time_t endTime, startTime; unsigned char block[TEST_BLOCK_LEN], digest[16]; unsigned int i; Rivest [Page 18] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 printf ("MD%d time trial. Digesting %d %d-byte blocks ...", MD, TEST_BLOCK_LEN, TEST_BLOCK_COUNT); /* Initialize block */ for (i = 0; i < TEST_BLOCK_LEN; i++) block = (unsigned char)(i & 0xff); /* Start timer */ time (&startTime); /* Digest blocks */ MDInit (&context); for (i = 0; i < TEST_BLOCK_COUNT; i++) MDUpdate (&context, block, TEST_BLOCK_LEN); MDFinal (digest, &context); /* Stop timer */ time (&endTime); printf (" done\n"); printf ("Digest = "); MDPrint (digest); printf ("\nTime = %ld seconds\n", (long)(endTime-startTime)); printf ("Speed = %ld bytes/second\n", (long)TEST_BLOCK_LEN * (long)TEST_BLOCK_COUNT/(endTime-startTime)); } /* Digests a reference suite of strings and prints the results. */ static void MDTestSuite () { printf ("MD%d test suite:\n", MD); MDString (""); MDString ("a"); MDString ("abc"); MDString ("message digest"); MDString ("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"); MDString ("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789"); MDString ("1234567890123456789012345678901234567890\ 1234567890123456789012345678901234567890"); } /* Digests a file and prints the result. Rivest [Page 19] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 */ static void MDFile (filename) char *filename; { FILE *file; MD_CTX context; int len; unsigned char buffer[1024], digest[16]; if ((file = fopen (filename, "rb")) == NULL) printf ("%s can't be opened\n", filename); else { MDInit (&context); while (len = fread (buffer, 1, 1024, file)) MDUpdate (&context, buffer, len); MDFinal (digest, &context); fclose (file); printf ("MD%d (%s) = ", MD, filename); MDPrint (digest); printf ("\n"); } } /* Digests the standard input and prints the result. */ static void MDFilter () { MD_CTX context; int len; unsigned char buffer[16], digest[16]; MDInit (&context); while (len = fread (buffer, 1, 16, stdin)) MDUpdate (&context, buffer, len); MDFinal (digest, &context); MDPrint (digest); printf ("\n"); } /* Prints a message digest in hexadecimal. */ static void MDPrint (digest) unsigned char digest[16]; { Rivest [Page 20] RFC 1321 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm April 1992 unsigned int i; for (i = 0; i < 16; i++) printf ("%02x", digest); } A.5 Test suite The MD5 test suite (driver option "-x") should print the following results: MD5 test suite: MD5 ("") = d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e MD5 ("a") = 0cc175b9c0f1b6a831c399e269772661 MD5 ("abc") = 900150983cd24fb0d6963f7d28e17f72 MD5 ("message digest") = f96b697d7cb7938d525a2f31aaf161d0 MD5 ("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz") = c3fcd3d76192e4007dfb496cca67e13b MD5 ("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789") = d174ab98d277d9f5a5611c2c9f419d9f MD5 ("123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456 78901234567890") = 57edf4a22be3c955ac49da2e2107b67a Security Considerations The level of security discussed in this memo is considered to be sufficient for implementing very high security hybrid digital- signature schemes based on MD5 and a public-key cryptosystem. Author's Address Ronald L. Rivest Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science NE43-324 545 Technology Square Cambridge, MA 02139-1986 Phone: (617) 253-5880 EMail: rivest@theory.lcs.mit.edu Rivest [Page 21]