Buddhism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Buddhism is adharmic religion and aphilosophy.[1] Buddhism is also known asBuddha Dharma or Dhamma, which means roughly the "teachings of the Awakened One" inSanskrit andPali, languages of ancientBuddhist texts. Buddhism was founded around the fifth centuryBCE bySiddhartha Gautama, hereafter referred to as "the Buddha".
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin2 Divisions2.1 Terminology
3 Buddhism Today4 Doctrine4.1 The Four Noble Truths4.2 The Noble Eightfold Path4.3 Bodhi4.4 Middle Way4.5 Refuge in the Three Jewels4.6 īla: virtuous behavior and the precepts4.7 Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation)4.8 Prajñā (Wisdom)
5 Indian Buddhism5.1 Early Buddhism5.2 Rise of Mahayana Buddhism5.3 Emergence of the Vajrayāna5.4 Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia
6 Main traditions6.1 Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism6.2 Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism6.3 Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism
7 Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview8 Buddhist texts9 Buddhist symbols10 Present state of Buddhism11 Comparative study12 See also13 References14 Notes15 External links
Origin
PrinceSiddhartha Gautama is believed by Buddhists to have been born inLumbini[2] and raised inKapilavastu near the present-dayIndian-Nepalese border.[3] After his attainment of "Awakening" (bodhi - popularly called "Enlightenment" in the West) at the age of 35, he was known asBuddha orGautama Buddha. He spent some 45 years teaching his insights (Dharma). According to scholars, he lived around the fifth centuryBCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.[4] He died around the age of 80 inKushinagara (India).
Buddhism spread throughout theIndian subcontinent and into neighboring countries (such asSri Lanka) in thefive centuries following the Buddha‘s passing. It spread further into Asia and elsewhere over the nexttwo millennia.
Divisions
The original teachings and monastic organization established by Buddha can be referred to aspre-sectarian Buddhism, but all the current divisions within Buddhism are too much influenced by later history to warrant inclusion under this name[5] The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars[6] divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas:Theravada,East Asian Buddhism andTibetan Buddhism.
An alternative scheme used by some scholars[7] has two divisions,Theravada andMahayana, with the latter including the last two traditions above. This scheme is that of ordinary usage in the English language.[8] Some scholars[9]use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.
Terminology
The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:
Early Buddhist SchoolsThe schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; only one of these survives as an independent school, TheravadaEast Asian BuddhismA term used by scholars[10] to cover the Buddhist traditions of Japan, Korea, Singapore and most of China and VietnamEastern BuddhismAn alternative name used by some scholars[11] for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.Esoteric BuddhismUsually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[12] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravada, particularly in Cambodia.[13]HinayanaA pejorative term used inMahayana doctrine to denigrate its opponents[14]. It is sometimes used to refer to theearly Buddhist schools, including the contemporaryTheravada, although the legitimacy of this is disputed[15]. Its use in scholarly publications is controversial[16]. By the Mahayana schools and groups in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan the term is felt to be only slightly pejorative, or not pejorative at all[17]. By some it is used with respect proper to teachings coming direct from theBuddha. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[18] regardless of school.LamaismAn old term, still sometimes used, synonymous with Tibetan Buddhism; widely considered derogatory.MahayanaA movement that emerged out of theearly Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayana traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[19] regardless of school.MantrayanaUsually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[20] The Tendai school in Japan has been described as influenced by Mantrayana.[21]Northern BuddhismAn alternative term used by some scholars[22] for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions.Southeast Asian BuddhismAn alternative name used by some scholars[23] for Theravada.Southern BuddhismAn alternative name used by some scholars[24] for Theravada.SravakayanaAn alternative term sometimes used for the early Buddhist schools.Tantrayana or Tantric BuddhismUsually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[25] Howevwe, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of theTibetan scriptures as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts[26] (seeBuddhist texts). Some scholars[27] have used the term tantric Theravada to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.TheravadaThe traditional Buddhism of Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Vietnam, China, India, Bangladesh and Malaysia. It is the only surviving representative of the historicalearly Buddhist schools. The term ‘Theravada‘ is also sometimes used to refer to all the early Buddhist schools.[28]Tibetan BuddhismUsually understood as including the Buddhism of Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan and parts of China, India and Russia, which follow the Tibetan tradition.VajrayanaA movement that developed out of Indian Mahayana, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include also the JapaneseShingon school. Some scholars[29]also apply the term to the Korean milgyo tradition, which is not a separate school. One scholar[30] says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers. it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets the Vajrayana apart."
Buddhism Today
Indian Buddhism had become virtually extinct, but is now again gaining strength. Buddhism continues to attract followers around the world and is considered amajor world religion. While estimates of the number of Buddhist followers range from 230 to 500 million worldwide, most estimates are around 350 million,[31] or 310 million.[32] However,estimates are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis,[33] Buddhism is the fifth-largest religion in the world behindChristianity,Islam,Hinduism, andtraditional Chinese religion. The monks‘ order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest organizations on earth.
Doctrine
In Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" (by directly realizing the true nature of reality), without instruction, and teaches it to others is called abuddha. All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a person achieves this awakening, he or she is called anarahant.Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after him. His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also calledliberation, orNirvana.
Part of the Buddha’s teachings regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the"The Four Noble Truths", which focus ondukkha, a term that refers tosuffering or the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life. The Four Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. This way to the cessation of suffering is called"The Noble Eightfold Path", which is one of the fundamentals of Buddhistvirtuous ormoral life.
Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism, though only Theravada regards all of them as central. About all Buddhists few valid generalizations are possible.[34]
The Four Noble Truths
Main article:The Four Noble Truths
According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there existsDukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused bydesire and it can be brought to cessation by following theNoble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: āryā??ā?gamārga? , Pāli: Ariyo A??ha?giko Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".
Suffering: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. The cause of suffering: Thecraving which leads torenewed existence (rebirth) (the cycle of samsara) The cessation of suffering: The cessation ofcraving. The way leading to the cessation of suffering: TheNoble Eightfold Path;
According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by theBuddha after his enlightenment,[35] which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practisedausterities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time. The early teaching[36] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada[37] is that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them.
The Noble Eightfold Path
Main article:Noble Eightfold Path

The eight-spokedDharmachakra. The eight spokes represent theNoble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.
According to a saying attributed in some traditions tothe Buddha, if a person does not follow the Eightfold Path, one lives one‘s life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.[38]
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections:Sila (which concerns wholesome physical actions),Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) andPrajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).
Sila is morality — abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
Right Speech — One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā) Right Actions — Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta) Right Livelihood — One‘s way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)
Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
Right Effort/Exercise — One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma) Right Mindfulness/Awareness — Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-sm?ti, sammā-sati) Right Concentration/Meditation — Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)
Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
Right Understanding — Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. (samyag-d???i, sammā-di??hi) Right Thoughts — Change in the pattern of thinking. (samyak-sa?kalpa, sammā-sa?kappa)
The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the ‘Path‘ as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path intoprajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom),īla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) andsamādhi (concentration).
Bodhi

Gautama Buddha,Gandhara, northernPakistan.
Main article:Bodhi
Bodhi (Pāli andSanskrit , lit. awakening) is a term applied in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained bythe Buddha. When used in a generic sense, abuddha is generally considered to be aperson who discovers the truenature of reality through lifetimes of spiritual cultivation,investigation of the various religious practices of his time, andmeditation. This transformational discovery is calledBodhi (literally, "awakening" — more commonly called "enlightenment"). After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle ofsa?sāra: birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest happiness" (Nirvana, as described in theDhammapada). Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of thepāramitās (perfections), when theFour Noble Truths are fully grasped, and when allkarma has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed (lobha), hatred (Pali dosa), delusion (moha), ignorance (Sanskritavidyā, Pāli avijjā), craving (Sanskrit t???ā, Pāli ta?hā) and belief in self(ātmān, Pāli attā) have been extinguished. Bodhi thus implies understanding ofanātman (Pāli anatta). All schools of Buddhism recognizePratyekabodhi (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) andSamyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which abodhisattva becomes a fully enlightenedbuddha. In addition, Theravada recognizes Savakabodhi. According to a saying attributed in some traditions tothe Buddha, if a person does not follow the goal ofTotal Realization, one lives one‘s life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.[39] The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism.
Middle Way
The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is theMiddle Way which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:
It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It also refers to taking a middle ground between certainmetaphysical views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.[40] An explanation of the state ofnirvana and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (seeSeongcheol).
Refuge in the Three Jewels

Footprint ofthe Buddha withDharmachakra andtriratna, 1st century CE,Gandhāra.
Main articles:Refuge (Buddhism) andThree Jewels
Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires takingrefuge, as the foundation of one‘s religious practice, in Buddhism‘sThree Jewels (Sanskrit: ???????? Triratna or ???????? Ratna-traya,Pali: ????? Tiratana).[41] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in thelama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.
The Three Jewels are:
TheBuddha (i.e., Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also theTathāgata andākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form. TheDharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha. TheSangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali) — one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.
According to the scriptures,The Buddha presented himself as a model and besought his followers to have faith (Sanskrit ???????raddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. TheDharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. TheSa?gha (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha‘s teachings is attainable.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover. in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as theeternal Buddha himself.
Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one‘skarma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following theNoble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as theLotus Sutra, theAngulimaliya Sutra and theNirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.
īla: virtuous behavior and the precepts
Main article:Sila
īla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the secondpāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of īla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.[citation needed]
Sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to ‘basic morality‘ (five precepts), ‘basic morality with asceticism‘ (eight precepts), ‘novice monkhood‘ (ten precepts) and ‘monkhood‘ (Vinaya orPatimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by thefive precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake theeight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.
Thefive precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towardssentient life forms)2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committingtheft)3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss ofmindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)
In theeight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept ofcelibacy.
The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelery, going to shows, etc.8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks. It includes thePatimokkha, a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of thevinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya.Novice-monks use theten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the MahayanaBrahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) forBodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon andvegetarianism is actively encouraged (seevegetarianism in Buddhism).
Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation)
Main articles:Samadhi,Vipassana, andBuddhist meditation
In the language of theNoble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz.samatha meditation (Sanskrit: amatha) andvipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipa?yanā). Upon development of samādhi, one‘s mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit ??????? dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation ofmindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one‘s body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one‘s breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.
In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads tojñāna (Pāli ñā?a knowledge),prajñā (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and thus can lead tonirvā?a (Pāli nibbāna).
Prajñā (Wisdom)
Main article:Prajñā
Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization ofdependent origination,The Four Noble Truths andNoble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring aboutbodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attainingnirvā?a, through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the sixpāramitās of the Mahayana.
Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon,[citation needed] many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha‘s discourse.
Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha‘s teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (vipassanā,Sanskrit vipa?yanā) meditation[citation needed] to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.
Indian Buddhism
Early Buddhism
Main articles:History of Buddhism andBuddhist councils
Main articles:The Second Buddhist Council andEarly Buddhist schools
According to the scriptures, soon after theparinirvā?a (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council,ānanda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma.Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya).
As the Sa?gha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose regarding ten points of discipline. ASecond Buddhist Council (said in the scriptures to have taken place 100 years after the Buddha‘s death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was that all the monks agreed that those 10 practices were unallowed according to Vinaya.
At some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.
The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that ‘the Sangha has been made unified‘. This apparently refers to a dispute such as that described in the account of theThird Buddhist Council at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a schism.
These schisms occurred within thetraditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.
The root schism was between theSthaviras and theMahāsā?ghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas‘ own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsā?ghika schism to the ‘5 points‘ that erode the status of the arahant. For their part, the Mahāsā?ghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria forArhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.[42] The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was theTheravāda school.

Buddhistproselytism at the time of emperorA?oka the Great (260–218 BCE).
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sa?gha started to accumulate anAbhidharma, a collection of philosophical texts. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a newPitaka: theAbhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars, theMahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha‘s teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrimsFa Xian (5th century CE) and Yuan Chwang (7th century CE), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the Mahasanghika School.

Buddhist tradition records in theMilinda Panha that the2nd century BCEIndo-Greek kingMenander converted to the Buddhist faith and became anarhat.
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of theMauryan emperorA?oka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of A?oka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stūpas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions ofAfghanistan andCentral Asia, beyond the Mauryas‘ northwest border, and to the islands ofSri Lanka and theMaldives south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to theedicts of A?oka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboringSeleucid Empire, and even farther toHellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in theIndo-Greek Kingdom, and to the development of theGreco-Buddhist art ofGandhāra. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.
Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
Main article:Mahayana

Chinese Seated Buddha,Tang Dynasty,Hebei province, ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of theMahayana tradition, with popular schools today beingPure Land andZen.
The precise geographical origins ofMahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within theKushan Empire (within present-day northernPakistan), and in areas within theShatavahana Empire, includingAmaravati to the south-east (in present-dayAndhra Pradesh), to the west around the port ofBharukaccha (present-dayBharuch, a town nearBombay), and around the various cave complexes, such asAjanta andKarli (in present-dayGujarat andMaharashtra). The late Professor Hirakawa argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused aroundstupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as abodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. This theory is still widely held among Japanese scholars, but most western scholars now reject it.[43] The Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms ofAbhidharma andVinaya practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Sangha. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence fromvarious sects. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, theSarvastivada school and theDharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sutras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahayana sutras possible.

Expansion ofMahayana Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.
Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperorKanishka is said to have convened what many western scholars call the fourth Buddhist council. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the originalTripitaka in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, theLotus Sutra, an early version of theHeart Sutra and theAmitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendentBuddha-nature who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.[44] The new scriptures were first written inSanskrit or one of thePrakrits. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would flourish and spread from India toSoutheast Asia, and towards the north toCentral Asia and then east toChina where Mahayana wasSinicized and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on toKorea,Vietnam and finally toJapan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon. The most complete Mahayana Canon today is in theChinese language.
Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding fromNāgārjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by theTripi?aka sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-and-there-dominantSarvāstivāda school, which argued for the existence ofdharmas (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to beūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularlyanātman (no-self) andpratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as theMadhyamaka.
After the end of theKu?ā?as, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of theGuptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being theNālandā University in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such asVasubandhu andAsa?ga and were incorporated into theYogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Emergence of the Vajrayāna
Main article:Vajrayana
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and itstantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical ?ākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha‘s other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted toChina,Tibet,Maldives, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to beTibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject,Fairfield University ProfessorRonald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of theGupta dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led bysiddhas became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.[45]
Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia
See also:Decline of Buddhism in India
Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India andCentral Asia, and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such asMenander I andKaniska. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympatheticGreco-Bactrian and IranianAchaemenid kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of theKushāna Empire adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of theTurk-Shāhīs.
Buddhists were briefly persecuted under theZoroastrian priest-king Kirder.Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had resulted in the rise of a ‘Buddha-Mazda‘ divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy.[46]
TheHinayana traditions first spread among theTurkic tribes before combining with theMahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern-dayPakistan,Kashmir,Afghanistan, eastern and coastalIran,Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan andTajikistan. These were the ancient states ofGandhara,Bactria,Parthia andSogdia from where it spread toChina. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were alsoZoroastrians,Hindus,Nestorian Christians,Jews,Manichaeans, and followers ofshamanism,Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief.
From the 4th Century CE on,Hindu dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest (Pañjāb) and the lower Gangetic plain (Uttar Pradesh andBengal), the Indian caste system was found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along theSilk Road as far as China.
The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of theWhite Huns and Buddhism suffered as recorded byXuanzang. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the PersianSāsānids orTibet. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of butparast, literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in whichcult images play a role. Several high officials of theAbbāsid Caliphate, notably theBarmakids, were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists.
WhenMuhammad bin Qāsim led the invasion ofSindh at the mouth of theIndus river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord,Rājā Dahir. Relations with later Iranian rulers such as theSaffarids andSamanids were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.[47]
After the disintegration of theAbbāsid Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia andAfghanistan. In the 10th century CE, one of them,Mahmūd of Ghaznī, defeated theHindō-Shāhīs and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and thePañjāb. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains andAfghanistan alone andal-Biruni recorded the Buddha as a prophet "burxan", the Mongolian word for a Buddha.
The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them asSufis, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved toTransoxania and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together withChristianity,Manichaeism,Zoroastrianism, andshamanism in areas to the east (modernXinjiang) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim.
In 1215Genghis Khan conqueredAfghanistan and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided andChagatai established theChagatai Khanate whileHulegu established theIl Khanate where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan[2]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In theIl Khanate,Hulegu and his successorsAbaqa andArghun also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, whenGhazan came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion toIslam and the climate became hostile towards Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and afterGhazan‘s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.[48]
Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, inKa?mīr and especially in Bengal, where the BuddhistPāla kings ruled from the 8th–12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of theVajrayāna and the transmission of that form of Buddhism toTibet before they collapsed under assault from the HinduSena dynasty.
Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerfulRajputs, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements asVedānta philosophy andBhakti devotionalism. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as anavatāra of the Hindu godVishnu – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings and the Buddha‘s own unequivocal words about the nature of a Buddha and ofnirvāna.
In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom,Muhammad Khiljī destroyedNālandā, the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals ofQutbuddīn Aybak, a subject of the AfghanGhurids but soon to become the monarch of aMuslim sultanate at Delhi. Khiljī‘s march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. At about the same time, the Buddhist king ofMaldives, a country that had been trading with Bengal, converted to Islam and ordered all his subjects to do likewise.
After theMongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, manySufis also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs ofBengal. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along withHinduism‘s revival movements such asAdvaita and the rise of the syncreticbhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.
By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Ka?mīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples ofLadakh.
Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: theBauls ofBengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population.Arunachal Pradesh andSikkim are the other Indian states where Buddhism is practiced in great numbers. TheNewars ofNepal also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. Furthermore, much of Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed into Hinduism.
Main traditions

Chinese Mahayana Buddhist monk lighting incense in aBeijing temple.
The most common way scholars categorize Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist inPāli,Tibetan (also found inMongolian translation) andChinese collections, along with some texts that still exist inSanskrit andBuddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions since, despite the differences, there arecommon threads to almost all Buddhist branches:
All acceptthe Buddha as their teacher. All accept theMiddle Way,Dependent origination, theFour Noble Truths and theNoble Eightfold Path. All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi). All consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment.
Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism
Main article:Theravada
In addition to theEdicts of A?oka, Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the A?okan and post-A?okan period. Among these annals are theDīpava?sa, theMahāva?sa, and theSamantapāsādika of the south IndianVibhajjavāda (Sanskrit: Vibhajyavāda) sa?gha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda,A?oka convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha‘s words.[citation needed] According to the Theravada account, given in the Dipavamsa and elsewhere, Asoka called this council to sort out doctrinal disputes within the sangha, which these sources say were caused by the infiltration of the sangha by non-buddhists, apparently not actually ordained. The account goes on to say that the council approved the Kathavatthu, compiled by its president Moggaliputta Tissa, as part of the scriptures. As this text consists of doctrinal debates, apparently with other schools, the account seems to imply the other schools were not proper Buddhists or proper monks. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant‘s experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive; this branch of the school is now known as Theravada. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and theDharmaguptaka schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. it has been argued by some scholars that the council was part of a series of debates and/or disputes resulting in the formation of three main doctrinal schools, Vibhajjavada, Sarvastivada, and Puggalavada, which later were subject to further subdivisions. One such subdivision of the Vibhajjavada was established in Ceylon, and in course of time came to adopt the name Theravada (given above in its Sanskrit form Sthaviravada). Its scriptures, thePali Canon, were written down there in the last century BCE, at what the Theravada usually reckons as the fourth council.
It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that thePāli language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom ofMagadha spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of theEdicts of A?oka and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock nearGirnar in Gujarat.
Theravāda isPāli for "the Doctrine of the Elders" or "the Ancient Doctrine". Theravāda teaches one to encourage wholesome states of mind, avoid unwholesome states of mind, and to train the mind inmeditation. The aim of practice, according to Theravāda Buddhism, is the attainment of freedom from suffering, which is linked withNirvana, the highest spiritual goal. Theravāda teaches that the experience of suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained though putting into practice teachings like theFour Noble Truths and especially the fourth one, theNoble Eightfold Path.
The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on thePāli Canon and its commentaries. TheSutta collections andVinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of theTripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.
Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historicalearly Buddhist schools. Theravāda is primarily practiced today inSri Lanka,Myanmar,Laos,Thailand,Cambodia as well as small portions ofChina,Vietnam,Malaysia andBangladesh. It has a growing presence inEurope andAmerica.
Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism

ChineseMing dynasty porcelain figure ofGuanyin, "Goddess of Mercy."
Main article:Mahayana
Mahayana ("Great Vehicle") is an inclusive, cosmically-dimensioned faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts, seen as ultimately transcending the Pali suttas, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering (dukkha) and personal enlightenment of thearhats, to elevate the Buddha to the God-like status of an eternal, omnipresent, all-knowing being, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divineBodhisattvas devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity (and indeed of all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods). In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence.
The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (maha-karuna) or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" (bodhicitta) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings intoNirvana. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) andBuddha-nature (the deathlesstathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma — the highest presentation of Truth. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalistpanentheism (God in Buddhism).
In addition to theTripitaka scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools recognize all or part of a genre ofMahayana scriptures. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.
Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today inChina,Japan,Korea,Singapore, parts ofRussia and most ofVietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.
Chan/ZenPure LandNichiren, peculiar to JapanShingon, a form of VajrayanaTendai
Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism

Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung
Main article:Vajrayana
Though thoroughly based uponMahāyāna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is sometimes characterized asVajrayāna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna,Tantric Buddhism, oresoteric Buddhism). It therefore accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body ofBuddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature.
Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview
Main article:History of Buddhist schools
According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and theself, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. The scriptures explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizingenlightenment.
In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", theMahaparinirvana Sutra, insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there:
"The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112).
Also later, the famous Indian Buddhistyogi and teachermahasiddhaTilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his6 words of advice.
Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment tointellectualism, Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g.Abhidharma,Buddhist philosophy andReality in Buddhism.
Buddhist texts
Pali Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Sutta-vibhangaKhandhakaPari-vara
Sutta Pitaka
DighaNikayaMajjhimaNikayaSamyuttaNikaya
;
AnguttaraNikayaKhuddakaNikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Dhs.Vbh.Dhk.
Pug.Kvu.YamakaPatthana
view • talk • edit
Main article:Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon ofscripture is known inSanskrit as theTripitaka and inPāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
TheVinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for theSanghas of Buddhistmonks andnuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. TheSūtra Pitaka (Pāli:Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual discourses ofthe Buddha. TheAbhidharma Pitaka (Pāli:Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha‘s teachings.
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk namedMahākā?yapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha‘s sayings –sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya), and according to some sources the abhidhamma.ānanda, the Buddha‘s personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, andUpāli, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha‘s previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.
TheTheravāda and otherEarly Buddhist Schools traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as thePāli Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as theMahāyāna sūtras, are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were transmitted in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as thenāgas), or came directly from otherBuddhas orbodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or inChinese orTibetan translations.
The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as theāgamas.
Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma — and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.
Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.
For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha‘s higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism — from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha‘s "Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true".
Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformerBabasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In theTheravada tradition, condensed ‘study texts‘ were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, theDhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen — along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as theTao Te Ching — into hisBuddhist Bible in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his“The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.
Buddhist symbols
Main article:Buddhist symbolism
The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:
the Parasol (Umbrella) the Golden Fish the Treasure Vase the Lotus the Conch Shell theEndless Knot the Victory Banner theDharma wheel
Present state of Buddhism
 This section is astub. You can help byexpanding it.

Typical interior of a temple inKorea
Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary from 230 to 500 million, but the most common figure today is between 350 and 400 million.[49]
Theravāda Buddhism, usingPāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism inCambodia,Laos,Thailand,Sri Lanka, andMyanmar. Also theDalit Buddhist movement inIndia (inspired byB. R. Ambedkar) practices Theravada. East Asian forms of Buddhism that use scriptures inChinese are dominant in most ofChina,Japan,Korea,Taiwan,Singapore andVietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West. Northern Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found inTibet and the surrounding area ofIndia,Bhutan,Mongolia,Nepal,China, and theRussian Federation. Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.
At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (seeBuddhism in the West)
See alsoBuddhism by country
Comparative study
 This section is astub. You can help byexpanding it.
Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine,dependent origination is Buddhism‘s primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on theMiddle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.
List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies
Buddhism and Hinduism[3]Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)God in Buddhism (Buddhism and monotheism)Christianity and BuddhismBuddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)Buddhist Ethics (Buddhism and ethics)Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)Buddhism and psychologyJainism and Buddhism
See also

Buddhism Portal
Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the MahayanaBuddhist terms and conceptsList of Buddhist topicsList of Buddhists