The “Functional Equivalence” in English IdiomsTranslation and Comprehension of Cultural Phenomena
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摘要
论文以功能对等理论为基础主要对英语习用语的翻译进行了分析和阐述。
论文从英语习用语概念的多样性入手,介绍了英语习用语的特性及其起源。
习用语是语言的艺术,是语言的一种特殊表达方式。论文列举了习用语表
现出来的几类特性。首先,习用语是文化的表征,表现形式多种多样,并且富
含各种修辞,习用语本身也是一种修辞;除了持久的生命力,习用语还有着语
义整体性和结构稳定性的特征。从它的来源来看,习用语与文化有着紧密的联
系。有的习用语来源于人们的生活、风俗习惯和地理环境,另外一些习用语来
源于宗教信仰、历史、寓言和神话故事,或文学作品,有的习用语甚至来源于
外来语的借用。
蕴涵着丰富文化特质的习用语给翻译工作带来很大挑战。在阅读了大量的
有关习用语的翻译作品之后,作者在论文中对习用语不同的翻译版本进行了深
入的分析和探讨,习用语的意义不是由组成它的词语的单个意义的简单相加,
一些习用语的语言不符合语法逻辑,不能按常理来理解它。论文将习用语翻译
中出现的问题归纳为三类。一类是不求甚解,就习用语的表面意义直译;二是
生搬硬套,用意义不合的汉语成语替换;三是忽略了习用语的文化内涵,使译
文失去了原文的韵味。
翻译为文化交流的一种形式,也是一种文化移植活动。论文详细叙述了译
者应遵循的原理和策略,它们是归化、异化和功能对等。就翻译方法而言,因
为习用语的丰富的文化内涵,直译法总是处于最重要的位置,其后是替换、意
译和直译意译相融法。
作为文化交流的媒介,习用语的翻译极其重要。论文的主要目的和意义是
敦促译者更多的注意习用语翻译中的文化因素,提高文化交流效果,促进中英
文化交流活动。
关键字:习用语,翻译,文化交流,功能对等
武汉理工大学硕士学位论文
Abstract
On the basis of Functional Equivalence Theory, this dissertation mainly probes
into the translation of English idiom.
Starting with the divergence in the definitions of English idiom, the dissertation
introduces the characteristics and the origins of English idioms. Idiom is a special
kind of expressing way of language, or a kind of art of human language. The
dissertation reveals five types of characteristics of English idioms. The first, as well
as most important feature of idiom is that it is a mirror of culture. The second is that
English idioms are rich in figures, which have plentiful varied expressing styles, and
idiom itself is a kind of figure too. The semantic unity and structural stability are the
third and forth features of English idioms; the final one is long-lasting vitality.
Idioms are very close with culture, which can be testified by its origins. Some
idioms are originated from people’s lives, customs and environment while other
idioms are originated from religious belief, history, allegoric and mythical story, or
literal works. Still others originated from the foreign borrowing.
From the origins of English idioms, we know idiom, the culture-specific item,
would like to challenge the translator’s proficiency. Owing to the rich cultural
connotation of idiom, there are always some difficulties to make a sensible translation.
After reading numerous translation works of English idiom, the dissertation goes deep
into the different translation versions of English idioms, and explores the problems
occurring in the existing translation works. Idiom’s meaning is not a simple
combination of that of each constituent word. Some idioms are not logical
grammatically, cannot be understood by common sense. In the application or
translation of English idioms, some people take the superficial meaning of words or
phrases and translate it literally, or render it with the Chinese counterparts incorrectly.
Some people even interpret idioms word by word, so that the idiom loses its original
flavor.
Translation is a process of transplanting one culture into another. The
dissertation puts forward three principles, which a translator should follow. They are
foreignization, domestication and functional equivalency. As to the translation
strategies, owing to the cultural connotation of English idioms, one should give first
priority to literal translation. Then substitution and free translation should follow.
Finally is the combination of literal and free translation. With the guidance of
functional equivalency theory, and the above-mentioned translation methods, a
translator can provide a satisfactory translation product definitely.
As a medium of cross-cultural communication, translation of English idioms
becomes more and more important, the study on the translation of English idioms is
of great significance. This dissertation can help the translators to pay close attention
to the culture of source language in idiom translation, and help to enhance the
effectiveness of cross-cultural communication.
Key Words: idiom, translation, cultural communication, functional equivalence
Contents
Chapter One Introduction to English Idiom··························································1
1.1 Divergence in the Definitions of English Idiom ···············································1
1.2 Characteristics of English Idioms ·····································································1
1.3 Origin of English Idiom ···················································································14
Chapter Two Problems in the Translation of English Idiom ······························20
2.1 Misunderstanding or guessing the meaning literally ········································ 20
2.2 Substituting with Chinese counterparts incorrectly ········································ 23
2.3 The lose of original flavor················································································ 25
Chapter Three Principles of English Idiom Translation·····································27
3.1 Foreignization ·································································································· 27
3.2 Domestication ·································································································· 28
3.3 Functional equivalence ···················································································· 29
Chapter Four Proposed Strategies for Translating English Idiom ····················32
4.1 Literal translation / Literal translation with notes············································· 32
4.2 Substitution with Chinese counterparts or borrowing······································· 35
4.3 Free translation / Free translation with notes ·················································· 39
4.4 Combination of literal and free translation······················································· 43
Chapter Five Significances and Prospects of English Idiom Translation··········45
5.1 Helping to pay close attention to the culture of source language······················ 45
5.2 Helping to enhance the effectiveness of cross-cultural communication ··········· 46
5.3 Helping to enrich the target language······························································· 46
Bibliography············································································································48
Acknowledgements ·································································································50
Chapter One Introduction to English Idiom
1.1 Divergence in the Definitions of English Idiom
Idiom is originated from Greek; it means a special kind of expressing way of
human language, or a kind of art of human language. Its form can be a few words,
phrase, clause or short sentence. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese
Dictionary defines idiom as: Phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the
meaning of its individual word and which must be learnt as a whole unit, such as
“give way, a change of heart” etc.
Most people think idiom is equal to Chinese “chengyu” (成语), actually English
idiom and Chinese xiyongyu (习用语) are in the same lexical category, Chinese
“chengyu” is just a special item of the category, it is not correct to call English idiom
as English “chengyu” in translation.
Thus, we can define that: English idiom is a set of phrases or one sentence,
whose meaning is not obvious through knowledge of the individual meaning of the
constituent words, but must be learnt as a whole. It is a special phenomenon, which
appeared during the long history of language development. In a broad sense, it
includes idiom, proverb, allusion, allegorical saying, maxim and colloquialism.
1.2 Characteristics of English Idiom
English is heavily idiomatic, English idiom is widely used both in writing and
speaking, it takes on various characteristics, which one can observe in the following
paragraphs.
Peter Newmark defines culture as: the way of life and its manifestations that are
peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.
Culture manifests itself in patterns of language, the amazing development of
human history is mirrored to a large extent in the development of the vocabulary,
Calver Waltin has once remarked, “though by no means a perfect mirror, the lexicon
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of a language remains the single most effective way of approaching and
understanding the culture of speakers”, therefore, idiom as a specialized form of
language, will naturally reflect its culture like all other kind of words.
As the most sensitive part of vocabulary, English idiom may provide clues to
people’s history, geographical features, environment, customs, religion and literary
works, etc.
The emergence of idiom is related closely with people’s lives and their work.
history, people created a lot of idioms that have something with water, sea or
navigation. While Chinese people live on the mainland so far, therefore, the “land” or
“something with land” appears in the Chinese idioms very much.
Let’s look at some examples:
When we criticize someone who is extravagant, English people will say “spend
the money like water”, while Chinese people would say “挥金如土”。
Idioms, that have above-mentioned connotations, have different metaphors
between Chinese and English. This can be seen in many places. For example:
★ Fish in the air 水中捞月
★ A drop in the ocean 沧海一粟;九牛一毛
★ While the cat is away, the mice will play. 山中无老虎, 猴子称大王。
★ Drink like a fish 牛饮
★ To kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. 杀鸡取卵
★ Kill two birds with one stone. 一箭双雕
★ Speak of angels and you will hear their wings. 说曹操, 曹操到。
★ Never offer to teach fish to swim 不要班门弄斧。
★ Neither fish nor flesh 非驴非马
★ As wet as a drowned rat 湿如落汤鸡
In
Chinese peasants take ox to complete the tough farming job, so the idioms to describe
the person who serves somebody wholeheartedly are different between Chinese and
English, English idiom is “work like a horse”, while Chinese idiom is “做老黄牛”.
Because of different geographical location, in
from the east, and “east wind” means the new start of a year, also it indicates that the
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weather becomes warm, and trees and grass will blossom. But in
wind means the west wind, not “east wind”. The work of Shelley – Ode to the West
Wind, is an ode to “spring”. The summer of Chinese mainland always connects with
extreme heat, while
compared the lover as summer in one of his sonnet works: Shall I compare thee to a
summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. We can see the difference
between Chinese and
and Chinese cultures.
Among English, there are a lot of idioms that cannot be found with Chinese
counterparts, they are just the mirrors of each culture, such as:
★ To rest on one’s oars 暂时歇一歇
★ To keep one’s head above water 奋力图存
★ All at sea 不知所措
★ Miss the boat 坐失良机
★ Push the boat out 玩得痛快;享乐
★ The coast is clear. 已无阻碍,危险已过;时机正好。
There are also lots of Chinese idioms that cannot be found with English
counterparts:
★ 有眼不识泰山, Fail to recognize someone’s eminence.
★ 不到黄河心不死, Refuse to give up until all hope is gone.
From the definition of “idiom”, we know that the meaning of English idiom is
beyond the whole of general meaning, it is not a simple combination of meanings of
each constituent elements, which is a new one born of the combination. We can only
treat English idiom as a whole unity, and understand its connotation rhetorically.
Namely, idiom is a unity, the connection between the words cannot cut apart, if the
words are understood separately, the meaning of the sentence or phrase will be totally
different or even entirely opposite.
For example: a bolt from the blue
This idiom means something unexpectedly and unpleasant “晴天霹雳”, if we
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comprehend the idiom literally, “bolt” equals to “thunderbolt”, “blue” means a kind
of color, then this sentence is unreadable and untranslatable. Here “blue” actually
means good weather or blue sky.
We can say that semantic unity of English idiom refers to the meaning of idiom
whose meaning is a new meaning originated from the whole of constituent words, at
the same time, the constituent words lose their previous semantic independences
accordingly in the combination.
Let us see more examples:
★ To break the ice
★ Born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth.
The meanings of “to break the ice” “打破僵局” and “born with a silver spoon in
one’s mouth” “出身于富贵之家” have nothing to do with the original ones of the
constituent words.
★ The name of the game
The literal meaning of this idiom is “游戏的名称”, but the idiomatic meaning is
“主要意思,确切意思”.
★ All in the day’s work
The literal meaning of this idiomatic phrase is “都在一天的工作中”, but the
idiomatic meaning is “经常发生或可以意料得到的”.
★ Show the white feather
The meaning is not“显出白色的羽毛”, but “表示胆怯”.
★ Bring down the house
The meaning is not “拆掉房子”, but “博得全场喝彩”.
In other words, the meaning of idioms cannot be deduced from its constituent
words. Many idioms share above-mentioned implied meanings. Such as “as mute as a
fish” “噤若寒蝉”, “as good as gold” “真乖”, “to pick holes in” “吹毛求疵”, “shoot
the breeze” “闲聊”, “blow one's mind” “使惊讶”, “play to the gallery” “讨好观众”,
etc.
Although one or a few words of idioms keep their original meanings, if the
idioms are not comprehended within the context, the general connotations of idioms
cannot be clear. For example, among the idioms “plain sailing”, “to turn over a new
leaf”, “to face the music”, “sailing, turn over, face” still keep the original meanings,
but if the idioms are not treated as a unity, then the general meanings of those idioms
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cannot be deduced as “一帆风顺” “改过自新” “临危不惧”,
Semantic unity is universal feature of all idioms, which is also a criterion of
separating free phrase from fixed phrase – idiom, just as someone defines “idiom” as
“the use of familiar words in an unfamiliar sense”.
Usually the words of idiom cannot be added, omitted or replaced by synonyms
randomly, they have their own stability, once the constituent words of the idiom are
changed, or the orders of the constituent words are changed, the meaning of the idiom
will alter accordingly or the meaning is not sound at all.
For instances:
★ Kick the bucket 死掉,翘辫子
Mr. Jones kicked the bucket two days before his ninety-fourth birthday.
Here the idiom cannot be changed, no matter whether it is the order of the idiom
or substitution of the words (we cannot use “pail” to replace “bucket”). If we say,
“The bucket has been kicked by a cowboy”, then the sentence is not idiomatic.
★ Off the cuff 即兴的,临时的
She sang a few lines off the cuff.
Here in the sentence the “off” cannot be replaced by “on”( “on the cuff” means
“赊账的”).
★ Have other fish to fry 另有要事
I was invited to the party, but I had other fish to fry.
In the idiom, the word “other” cannot be changed to “some”.
Let’s see more examples:
★ “Out of question ” “毫无疑问” is not equal to “out of the question” “不可能”.
★ “Stare somebody in the face”, “迫在眉睫” cannot be changed “to stare
somebody in his face” “盯着某人的脸”.
★ “As cool as a cucumber” “泰然自若” cannot be changed to “as cool as a
potato” or “as cool as a watermelon”.
★ “Bear in mind” “牢记”, “at short notice” “一旦接到通知”, no any article can
be added before “mind, notice”; on the other hand, in the idioms such as “fly into a
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temper” “发脾气”, “to tell the truth” “说实话”, “keep an eye on” “小心地看着”, the
articles can’t be changed or omitted at all.
★ “Diamond cut diamond” “棋逢对手”, in this idiom, “s” which stands for
third person singular never appears after “cut”. The idiom is formed in the long
history of language development, if “cut” ends with “s”, it is not idiomatic.
But in “like cures like” “以毒攻毒”, the verb “cures”, the third person singular,
cannot be changed to plural form.
★ “By twos and threes”, almost has the same meaning of Chinese idiom “三三
两两”, but we cannot change this idiom as “by threes and twos” as our Chinese
speaking habits.
We can’t deduce an idiom according to our imagination, just like “dead letter”
“形同虚设的规定”,there is no idiom as “living letter”; Also we cannot conjure the
sentence “the boat is on the same foot/leg” which is just based on the sentence “the
boat is on the other foot/leg” “情势已逆转,责任在他人”.
All in all, English idiom has its own stability of meaning and structure. During
the long history of human development, idiom becomes the speaking habits of people
gradually. Idiom is more stable than other English phrases semantically and
structurally. People cannot alter its structure and meaning freely.
English idiom is rich in figures of speech, almost every kind of rhetorical device,
like simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, alliteration etc., can see itself in the
English idiom, among which metaphor appears most frequently.
The following is the detailed description:
(1) Alliteration
The word “Alliteration” originates from Latin “lettera”, it means “repeating and
playing upon the same letter”. As a figure of speech, alliteration refers to the
appearance of the same initial consonant sound of two or more words, which is used
to give emphasis to words that are related in meaning.
For instance:
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★ Practice makes perfect . 熟能生巧。
★ Fine feathers make fine birds. 人要衣装,佛要金饰。
★ Fortune favors fools. 傻子自有傻福。
★ Penny wise, pound foolish. 小事聪明,大事糊涂。
★ Care killed a cat. 忧虑伤身。
★ Death pays all debts. 一死百债了。
★ Better bend than break. 宁弯不折。
★ Many a little makes a mickle. 积少成多。
★ Never trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. 别自找麻烦。
★ Dump dogs are dangerous. 咬犬不吠。
★ Time and tide wait for no man. 岁月不等人。
★ Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成。
★ No sweet without sweat. 不经过艰苦就没有安乐;流汗如浆,粮食满仓。
★ He laughs best that laughs last. 谁笑到最后,谁笑得最好。
★ Spare the rod, and spoil the child. 孩子不打不成才。
★ Deliberating is not delaying. 深思熟滤不误事。
★ Look before you leap. 三思而后行。
(2) Simile
Simile is a very simple and common figure of speech in English, which is a
comparison of one thing with another by using “as” or “like”. Its usual form is that A
is like / as B. By using simile, the writer aims to make an explicit interpretation of
some complicated matter, and impress readers deeply.
For example:
★ As rust eats iron, so care eats the heart. 锈能蚀铁, 忧能伤人。
★ Use a book as a bee does flowers. 读书如蜜蜂采蜜。
★ Proud as a peacock 洋洋得意
★ As fit as a fiddle 神采奕奕
★ As cool as cucumber 泰然自若
★ Critics are like brushes of noblemen’s clothes.
批评家好比刷子, 为伟人刷去衣服上的灰尘。
★ Falsehood like a nettle stings those who meddle with it.
谎言似荨麻, 谁玩谁被扎。
★ Wit without learning is like a tree without fruit.
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没有学识的机智犹如没有果实的树。
★ A man of words and not of deeds is like a garden full of weeds.
光说话, 不做事, 就像花园长满刺。
(3) Metaphor
Some people say that metaphor is another kind of simile that without “like” and
“as”. Metaphor is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to
another with a similar quality。It is also a comparison, but the comparison is implied.
Its usual form is “A is B”. English idioms are rich in metaphor.
The following are the examples:
★ Adversity is a good school-master. 逆境是个好教员。
★ War is Death’s feast. 战争是死神的筵席。
★ A good tongue is a good weapon. 能言善辨是一件精良的武器。
★ Confidence is a plant of slow growth. 信任是一棵难长的树。
★ Time is money. 时间就是金钱。
★ Life is as shuttle. 生命短暂如梭。
★ Spill the beans (Let the cat out of the bag) 泄露秘密
(4) Metonymy
Metonymy is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it
is closely associated. Metonymy is different from simile or metaphor, it doesn’t
reflect the similarity between two things, but rather the close relationship between
them, which can enable the reader know what the writer want to imply. In other
words, the focus of metonymy is association, not similarity, the reader associates with
B once A is reminded. When metonymy is well used, brevity and vividness may be
achieved, such as:
★ The pen is mightier than the sword. 文比武强。
Here “pen” refers to the writer or works, and “sword” refers to soldier or arms.
★ A heavy purse makes a light heart. 钱包沉重,心情才轻松。
In this idiom, “purse” means money or material sufficiency.
Let’s see more examples:
★ One swallow does not make a summer.
独燕不成夏(Swallow is one of the things related with summer, but only one
swallow appearing doesn’t mean the summer is coming)。
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★ A cat in gloves catches no mice.
戴手套的猫捉不到耗子(means: 四体不勤的人干不成事)。
★ It is a long lane that has no turning.
路必有弯(means: 事情必有转机, 鼓励人们不要失望)。
★ It is a sad house where the hen crows louder than the cock.
母鸡司晨, 家门不兴(means: 丈夫惧内,老婆专权的家庭)。
★ It is the last straw that breaks the camel’s back.
骆驼负载过重, 加根草就能压死(means: 不能使人忍受的最后一击)。
★ A wolf in sheep’s clothing.
披着羊皮的狼(means: 花言巧语伪装成朋友的凶恶敌人)。
★ It is good fishing in troubled water.
浑水摸鱼(means: 一些心术不正的人乘混乱的时候捞一把)。
★ Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion.
凯撒之妻必须无可怀疑(means: 作为女人或者跟伟人有关系的人必须洁身
自爱。凯撒是古罗马大将,其妻Pompeia 与P.Clodius 一案有所牵连,凯撒因此
遗弃了她)。
★ Bacchus has drowned more than Neptune and has killed more than Mars.
酒比大海淹死人更多,比战争杀人更多(Bacchus、Neptune 与Mars 分别是
希腊罗马神话中的酒神、海神和战神)。
(5) Synecdoche
When a part of one matter is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted
for a part, synecdoche is applied. For example:
★ Many hands make light work. 人多好办事。
★ Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同。
★ Two heads are better than one. 三个臭皮匠, 顶个诸葛亮。
In the above sentences, “ hands” stands for man, “minds” for great person or
social elite, “heads” for thinking or mediation.
(6) Hyperbole
Hyperbole is one figure of speech with overstatement. It indicates the writer tries
to exaggerate the subject intentionally with plentiful imagination to show strong
affection, or to make the statement or description impressive and interesting.
For instances: