DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE

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1、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist1.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 1: Distance Education: An Overview
What is Distance Education?Is Distance Education Effective? How is Distance Education Delivered?
Which Technology is Best?
Effective Distance Education
Key Players in Distance Education
References
For Further Information
Within a context of rapid technological change and shifting market conditions, the American education system is challenged with providing increased educational opportunities without increased budgets. Many educational institutions are answering this challenge by developing distance education programs. At its most basic level, distance education takes place when a teacher and student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology (i.e., voice, video, data, and print), often in concert with face-to-face communication, is used to bridge the instructional gap. These types of programs can provide adults with a second chance at a college education, reach those disadvantaged by limited time, distance or physical disability, and update the knowledge base of workers at their places of employment.
Many educators ask if distant students learn as much as students receiving traditional face-to-face instruction. Research comparing distance education to traditional face-to-face instruction indicates that teaching and studying at a distance can be as effective as traditional instruction, when the method and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional tasks, there is student-to-student interaction, and when there is timely teacher-to- student feedback (see Moore & Thompson, 1990; Verduin & Clark, 1991).
A wide range of technological options are available to the distance educator. They fall into four major categories:
Voice - Instructional audio tools include the interactive technologies of telephone, audioconferencing, and short-wave radio. Passive (i.e., one-way) audio tools include tapes and radio.
Video - Instructional video tools include still images such as slides, pre-produced moving images (e.g., film, videotape), and real-time moving images combined with audioconferencing (one-way or two-way video with two-way audio).
Data - Computers send and receive information electronically. For this reason, the term "data" is used to describe this broad category of instructional tools. Computer applications for distance education are varied and include:
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) - uses the computer as a self-contained teaching machine to present individual lessons.
Computer-managed instruction (CMI) - uses the computer to organize instruction and track student records and progress. The instruction itself need not be delivered via a computer, although CAI is often combined with CMI.
Computer-mediated education (CME) - describes computer applications that facilitate the delivery of instruction. Examples include electronic mail, fax, real-time computer conferencing, and World-Wide Web applications.
Print - is a foundational element of distance education programs and the basis from which all other delivery systems have evolved. Various print formats are available including: textbooks, study guides, workbooks, course syllabi, and case studies.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes, not the technology of delivery. The key to effective distance education is focusing on the needs of the learners, the requirements of the content, and the constraints faced by the teacher, before selecting a delivery system. Typically, this systematic approach will result in a mix of media, each serving a specific purpose. For example:
A strong print component can provide much of the basic instructional content in the form of a course text, as well as readings, the syllabus, and day-to-day schedule.
Interactive audio or video conferencing can provide real time face-to-face (or voice-to-voice) interaction. This is also an excellent and cost-effective way to incorporate guest speakers and content experts.
Computer conferencing or electronic mail can be used to send messages, assignment feedback, and other targeted communication to one or more class members. It can also be used to increase interaction among students.
Pre-recorded video tapes can be used to present class lectures and visually oriented content.
Fax can be used to distribute assignments, last minute announcements, to receive student assignments, and to provide timely feedback.
Using this integrated approach, the educator‘s task is to carefully select among the technological options. The goal is to build a mix of instructional media, meeting the needs of the learner in a manner that is instructionally effective and economically prudent.
Without exception, effective distance education programs begin with careful planning and a focused understanding of course requirements and student needs. Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail. There is no mystery to the way effective distance education programs develop. They don‘t happen spontaneously; they evolve through the hard work and dedicated efforts of many individuals and organizations. In fact, successful distance education programs rely on the consistent and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
The following briefly describes the roles of these key players in the distance education enterprise and the challenges they face.
Students - Meeting the instructional needs of students is the cornerstone of every effective distance education program, and the test by which all efforts in the field are judged. Regardless of the educational context, the primary role of the student is to learn. This is a daunting task under the best of circumstances, requiring motivation, planning, and an ability to analyze and apply the instructional content being taught. When instruction is delivered at a distance, additional challenges result because students are often separated from others sharing their backgrounds and interests, have few if any opportunities to interact with teachers outside of class, and must rely on technical linkages to bridge the gap separating class participants.
Faculty - The success of any distance education effort rests squarely on the shoulders of the faculty. In a traditional classroom setting, the instructor‘s responsibility includes assembling course content and developing an understanding of student needs. Special challenges confront those teaching at a distance. For example, the instructor must:
Develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distant students with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, face-to-face contact.
Adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the needs and expectations of multiple, often diverse, audiences.
Develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining focused on their teaching role.
Function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider.
Facilitators - The instructor often finds it beneficial to rely on a site facilitator to act as a bridge between the students and the instructor. To be effective, a facilitator must understand the students being served and the instructor‘s expectations. Most importantly, the facilitator must be willing to follow the directive established by the teacher. Where budget and logistics permit, the role of on-site facilitators has increased even in classes in which they have little, if any, content expertise. At a minimum, they set up equipment, collect assignments, proctor tests, and act as the instructor‘s on-site eyes and ears.
Support Staff - These individuals are the silent heroes of the distance education enterprise and ensure that the myriad details required for program success are dealt with effectively. Most successful distance education programs consolidate support service functions to include student registration, materials duplication and distribution, textbook ordering, securing of copyright clearances, facilities scheduling, processing grade reports, managing technical resources, etc.. Support personnel are truly the glue that keeps the distance education effort together and on track.
Administrators - Although administrators are typically influential in planning an institution‘s distance education program, they often lose contact or relinquish control to technical managers once the program is operational. Effective distance education administrators are more than idea people. They are consensus builders, decision makers, and referees. They work closely with technical and support service personnel, ensuring that technological resources are effectively deployed to further the institution‘s academic mission. Most importantly, they maintain an academic focus, realizing that meeting the instructional needs of distant students is their ultimate responsibility.
Moore, M.G. & Thompson, M.M., with Quigley, A.B., Clark, G.C., & Goff, G.G. (1990). The effects of distance learning: A summary of the literature. Research Monograph No. 2. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. (ED 330 321).
Verduin, J.R. & Clark, T.A. (1991). Distance education: The foundations of effective practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
This guide is one in a series developed byBarry Willis and the University of Idaho Engineering Outreach staff highlighting information detailed in Dr. Willis‘ books, Distance Education–Strategies and Tools and Distance Education–A Practical Guide. Other guides in this series include:
2、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist2.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 2: Strategies for Teaching at a Distance
What‘s Different About Distant Teaching?Why Teach at a Distance?
Improving Planning and Organization
Meeting Student Needs
Improving Interaction & Feedback
Use Effective Teaching Skills
References
For Further Information
Classroom teachers rely on a number of visual and unobtrusive cues from their students to enhance their delivery of instructional content. A quick glance, for example, reveals who is attentively taking notes, pondering a difficult concept, or preparing to make a comment. The student who is frustrated, confused, tired, or bored is equally evident. The attentive teacher consciously and subconsciously receives and analyzes these visual cues and adjusts the course delivery to meet the needs of the class during a particular lesson.
In contrast, the distant teacher has few, if any, visual cues. Those cues that do exist are filtered through technological devices such as video monitors. It is difficult to carry on a stimulating teacher-class discussion when spontaneity is altered by technical requirements and distance.
Without the use of a real-time visual medium such as television, the teacher receives no visual information from the distant sites. The teacher might never really know, for example, if students are asleep, talking among themselves or even in the room. Separation by distance also affects the general rapport of the class. Living in different communities, geographic regions, or even states deprives the teacher and students of a common community link.
Many teachers feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles. In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students. The challenges posed by distance education are countered by opportunities to:
Reach a wider student audience
Meet the needs of students who are unable to attend on-campus classes
Involve outside speakers who would otherwise be unavailable
Link students from different social, cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds
In developing or adapting distance instruction, the core content remains basically unchanged, although its presentation requires new strategies and additional preparation time. Suggestions for planning and organizing a distance delivered course include:
Begin the course planning process by studying distance education research findings. There are several research summaries available (see Moore & Thompson, 1990).
Before developing something new, check and review existing materials for content and presentation ideas.
Analyze and understand the strengths and weaknesses of the possible delivery systems available to you (e.g., audio, video, data, and print) not only in terms of how they are delivered (e.g., satellite, microwave, fiber optic cable, etc..), but in terms of learner needs and course requirements before selecting a mix of instructional technology.
Hands-on training with the technology of delivery is critical for both teacher and students. Consider a pre-class session in which the class meets informally using the delivery technology and learns about the roles and responsibilities of technical support staff.
At the start of class initiate a frank discussion to set rules, guidelines, and standards. Once procedures have been established, consistently uphold them.
Make sure each site is properly equipped with functional and accessible equipment. Provide a toll-free "hotline" for reporting and rectifying problems.
If course materials are sent by mail, make sure they are received well before class begins. To help students keep materials organized, consider binding the syllabus, handouts, and other readings prior to distribution.
Start off slowly with a manageable number of sites and students. The logistical difficulties of distant teaching increase with each additional site.
To function effectively, students must quickly become comfortable with the nature of teaching and learning at a distance. Efforts should be made to adapt the delivery system to best motivate and meet the needs of the students, in terms of both content and preferred learning styles. Consider the following strategies for meeting students‘ needs:
Assist students in becoming both familiar and comfortable with the delivery technology and prepare them to resolve the technical problems that will arise. Focus on joint problem solving, not placing blame for the occasional technical difficulty.
Make students aware of and comfortable with new patterns of communication to be used in the course (Holmberg, 1985).
Learn about students‘ backgrounds and experiences. Discussing the instructor‘s background and interests is equally important.
Be sensitive to different communication styles and varied cultural backgrounds. Remember, for example, that students may have different language skills, and that humor is culturally specific and won‘t be perceived the same way by all.
Remember that students must take an active role in the distance delivered course by independently taking responsibility for their learning.
Be aware of students‘ needs in meeting standard university deadlines, despite the lag time often involved in rural mail delivery.
For the most part, effective distance teaching requires the enhancement of existing skills, rather than developing new abilities. Pay special attention to the following:
Realistically assess the amount of content that can be effectively delivered in the course. Because of the logistics involved, presenting content at a distance is usually more time consuming than presenting the same content in a traditional classroom.
Be aware that student participants will have different learning styles. Some will learn easily in group settings, while others will excel when working independently.
Diversify and pace course activities and avoid long lectures. Intersperse content presentations with discussions and student-centered exercises.
Humanize the course by focusing on the students, not the delivery system.
Consider using a print component to supplement non-print materials (see Graham & Wedman, 1989).
Use locally relevant case studies and examples as often as possible to assist students in understanding and applying course content. Typically, the earlier in the course this is done, the better.
Be concise. Use short, cohesive statements and ask direct questions, realizing that technical linkages might increase the time it takes for students to respond.
Develop strategies for student reinforcement, review, repetition, and remediation. Towards this end, one-on-one phone discussions and electronic mail communication can be especially effective.
And finally...relax. Participants will quickly grow comfortable with the process of distance education and the natural rhythm of effective teaching will return.
Using effective interaction and feedback strategies will enable the instructor to identify and meet individual student needs while providing a forum for suggesting course improvements. To improve interaction and feedback, consider the following:
Use pre-class study questions and advance organizers to encourage critical thinking and informed participation on the part of all learners. Realize that it will take time to improve poor communication patterns.
Early in the course, require students to contact you and interact among themselves via electronic mail, so they become comfortable with the process. Maintaining and sharing electronic journal entries can be very effective toward this end.
Arrange telephone office hours using a toll-free number. Set evening office hours if most of your students work during the day.
Integrate a variety of delivery systems for interaction and feedback, including one-on-one and conference calls, fax, E-mail, video, and computer conferencing. When feasible, consider personal visits as well.
Contact each site (or student) every week if possible, especially early in the course. Take note of students who don‘t participate during the first session, and contact them individually after class.
Use pre-stamped and addressed postcards, out-of-class phone conferences, and e-mail for feedback regarding course content, relevancy, pace, delivery problems, and instructional concerns.
Have students keep a journal of their thoughts and ideas regarding the course content, as well as their individual progress and other concerns. Have students submit journal entries frequently.
Use an on-site facilitator to stimulate interaction when distant students are hesitant to ask questions or participate. In addition, the facilitator can act as your on-site "eyes and ears".
Call on individual students to ensure that all participants have ample opportunity to interact. At the same time, politely but firmly discourage individual students or sites from monopolizing class time.
Make detailed comments on written assignments, referring to additional sources for supplementary information. Return assignments without delay, using fax or electronic mail, if practical.
References
Blanchard, W.(1989). Telecourse effectiveness: A research-review update. Olympia, WA: Washington State Board for Community College Education. (ED 320 554)
Graham, S.W., & Wedman, J.F.(1989). Enhancing the appeal of teletraining. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 16(4), 183-191.
Holmberg, B.(1985). Communication in distance study. In Status and trends of distance education. Lund, Sweden: Lector Publishing.
Moore, M.G.,& Thompson, M.M., with Quigley, A.B., Clark, G.C., & Goff, G.G.(1990). The effects of distance learning: A summary of the literature. Research Monograph No. 2. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. (ED 330 321).
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
3、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist3.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 3: Instructional Development for Distance Education
Need for Instructional Development
The Design Stage
The Development Stage
The Evaluation Stage
The Revision Stage
In Conclusion
References
For Further Information
Instructional development provides a process and framework for systematically planning, developing, and adapting instruction based on identifiable learner needs and content requirements. This process is essential in distance education, where the instructor and students may share limited common background and typically have minimal face-to-face contact. Although instructional development models and processes abound (see Dick & Carey, 1990; Gustafson & Powell, 1991), the majority follow the same basic stages of design, development, evaluation, and revision.
Design
-Determine need
-Analyze audience
-Establish goals
Revision
Development
-Develop and implement revision plan
-Create content outline
-Review existing materials
-Organize and develop content
-Select/develop materials and delivery methods
Evaluation
-Review goals and objectives
-Develop evaluation strategy
-Collect and analyze data
-Determine the need for instruction - To begin, determine the need for instruction by considering what external data verify the need, what factors led to the instructional need, and what past experiences indicate that the instruction being planned can effectively meet this need.
-Analyze your audience - To better understand the distant learners and their needs, consider their ages, cultural backgrounds, past experiences, interests and educational levels. Assess their familiarity with the various instructional methods and delivery systems being considered, determine how they will apply the knowledge gained in the course, and note whether the class will consist of a broad mix of students or discrete subgroups with different characteristics (e.g. urban/rural, undergraduate/graduate). When possible, the instructor should visit distant sites and interview prospective students, both individually and in small groups. This personalized attention will also show students that the instructor is more than an anonymous presence, linked by electronic technology. Colleagues who have worked with the target population can also offer advice.
-Establish instructional goals/objectives - Based on the nature of the problem as well as student needs and characteristics, establish instructional goals and objectives. Goals are broad statements of instructional intent, while objectives are specific steps leading to goal attainment.
-Create a content outline - Based on the instructional problems, the audience analysis, instructional goals and objectives, and an understanding of the desired course content, create an outline of the content to be covered.
-Review existing materials - Next, the instructor should review existing materials. Instructional materials should not be used solely because they are readily available or have been effective in a traditional classroom setting (see Beare, 1989). This is especially true if pre-packaged materials, such as telecourses, are being considered. Whereas many pre-packaged instructional tools are developed and marketed to reach students with similar backgrounds and experiences, they may have little relevance for distant learners who come to the course with widely varied and non-traditional experiential backgrounds. If pre-packaged materials are to be used, consider developing “wrap around” introductions, conclusions, and summaries that specifically relate the learning materials to the instructional context of the distant student.
-Organize and develop content - Perhaps the greatest challenge facing the distance educator is creating student-relevant examples. Content, for the most part, is taught using examples that relate the content to a context understood by the students. The best examples are "transparent", allowing the learners to focus on the content being presented. If examples are irrelevant, learning is impeded. This is a special challenge in rural and multicultural settings where the teacher’s realm of experience and related content examples may be foreign to distant learners. To address this problem, discuss potential content examples with a sampling of the target audience.
-Select/develop materials and methods - The development of instructional materials and selection of delivery methods will often require integrating print, voice, video, and data technology in concert with face-to-face communication. The challenge here is to integrate delivery components, based on identifiable learner needs, content requirements, and technical constraints. For example, it does little good to rely on delivery technology that is unavailable to some class members. Make sure the same delivery systems are available to all distant learners to avoid the need to create parallel learning experiences.
-Review goals and objectives - One purpose of evaluation is to determine if the instructional methods and materials are accomplishing the established goals and objectives. Implementation of instruction represents the first real test of what has been developed. Try to pre-test instruction on a small scale prior to implementation. If this is not possible, the first actual use will also serve as the "field test" for determining effectiveness.
-Develop an evaluation strategy - Plan how and when to evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction.
Formative evaluation can be used to revise instruction as the course is being developed and implemented. For example, the distance educator can give students pre-addressed and stamped postcards to complete and mail after each session. These "mini-evaluations" might focus on course strengths and weaknesses, technical or delivery concerns, and content areas in need of further coverage.
Summative evaluation is conducted after instruction is completed and provides a data base for course revision and future planning. Following course completion, consider a summative evaluation session in which students informally brainstorm ways to improve the course. Consider having a local facilitator run the evaluation session to encourage a more open discussion.
Within the context of formative and summative evaluation, data are collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative evaluation relies on a breadth of response and is patterned after experimental research focused on the collection and manipulation of statistically relevant quantities of data.
In contrast, qualitative evaluation focuses on a depth of response, using more subjective methods such as interviews and observation to query a smaller number of respondents in greater depth. Qualitative approaches may be of special value because the diversity of distant learners may defy relevant statistical stratification and analysis. The best approach often combines quantitative measurement of student performance with open-ended interviewing and non-participant observation to collect and assess information about attitudes toward the course‘s effectiveness and the delivery technology.
-Collect and analyze evaluation data - Following implementation of your course/materials, collect the evaluation data. Careful analysis of these results will identify gaps or weaknesses in the instructional process. It is equally important to identify strengths and successes. Results of the evaluation analysis will provide a "springboard" from which to develop the revision plan.
There is room for improvement in even the most carefully developed distance delivered course, and the need for revision should be anticipated. In fact, there will likely be more confidence in a course that has been significantly revised than in one considered flawless the first time through.
Revision plans typically are a direct result of the evaluation process in tandem with feedback from colleagues and content specialists. The best source of revision ideas may be the instructor’s own reflection on course strengths and weaknesses. For this reason, revision should be planned as soon as possible after course completion.
Often, course revisions will be minor, such as breaking a large and unwieldy instructional unit into more manageable components, increasing assignment feedback, or improving student-to-student interaction. On other occasions, major revisions will be needed. Significant course changes should be field-tested prior to future course use.
Test revision ideas on small groups of distant learners, content specialists, and colleagues. Results of this process should be tempered by the knowledge that the characteristics of each distant class will vary and that revisions required for one learner group may be inappropriate for a different student population.
While it is possible, even appropriate on occasion, to shorten the instructional development process, it should be done only after considering the needs of the learner, the requirements of the content, and the constraints facing both teacher and students. Adhering to sound principles of instructional development won’t overcome all obstacles one encountered en route to developing effective distance education programs. It will, however, provide a process and procedural framework for addressing the instructional challenges that will surely arise.
References
Beare, P.L. (1989). The comparative effectiveness of videotape, audiotape, and telelecture in delivering continuing teacher education. American Journal of Distance Education. 3(2), 57-66.
Brooksfield, S.D. (1990). The skillful teacher: On technique, trust, and responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction (3rd ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, and Company.
Gustafson, K.L. & Powell, G.C. (1991). Survey of instructional development models with an annotated ERIC bibliography (2nd ed.). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. (ED 335 027).
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
4、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist4.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 4: Evaluation for Distance Educators
Why Evaluate?
Types of Evaluation
Evaluation Methods
What to Evaluate
Evaluation Tips
References
For Further Information
Effective teachers use a variety of means, some formal and others informal, to determine how much and how well their students are learning. For example, to formally evaluate student learning, most teachers use quizzes, tests, examinations, term papers, lab reports, and homework. These formal evaluation techniques help the instructor to evaluate student achievement and assign grades.
To evaluate classroom learning informally, teachers also use a variety of techniques. For example, teachers pose questions, listen carefully to student questions and comments, and monitor body language and facial expressions. Informal, often implicit evaluations permit the teacher to make adjustments in their teaching: to slow down or review material in response to questions, confusion, and misunderstandings; or to move on when student performance exceeds expectations.
When teaching at a distance, educators must address a different teaching challenge than when teaching in a traditional classroom. For example, instructors no longer have:
A traditional, familiar classroom.
A relatively homogeneous group of students.
Face-to-face feedback during class (e.g. students‘ questions, comments, body language, and facial expressions).
Total control over the distance delivery system.
Convenient opportunities to talk to students individually.
For these reasons, distance educators may find it useful to not only formally evaluate students through testing and homework, but to use a more informal approach (see Angelo and Cross, 1993) in collecting data to determine:
Student comfort with the method used to deliver the distant instruction.
Appropriateness of assignments.
Clarity of course content.
If class time is well spent.
Teaching effectiveness.
How a course can be improved.
Evaluation can be either formative, summative, or a combination of both.
Formative evaluation:
Is an on-going process to be considered at all stages of instruction.
Will enable the instructor to improve the course as he/she proceeds.
Facilitates course and content adaptation.
Will identify major gaps in the instructional plan or the need for minor adjustments.
Some strategies that educators can use to collect formative data from their distant students include:
Post cards - provide each student with prestamped and preaddressed postcards. On a weekly basis, have students use the postcards to share their concerns or respond to questions during the last three to five minutes of class.
Electronic mail - Can be a very effective way for instructors and students to communicate. Another plus, while the instructor is eliciting information about classroom learning, students become familiar with the use of electronic mail, a valuable skill.
Telephone - Call students often. Ask them open ended questions (e.g., "What snags did you run into on the second writing assignment?") to let students voice their concerns. Follow with probes (e.g., "Then, will you need more information sources?"). Set phone-in office hours but be sure to welcome calls at other times.
Summative evaluation:
Assesses overall effectiveness of the finished product or course.
Can be a springboard in developing a revision plan.
Can be a baseline of information for designing a new plan, program, or course.
Will not help current students since it is conducted upon course completion.
Some questions that educators may want to ask students when collecting summative data include:
List five weaknesses of the course.
List three (or five) strengths of the course.
If you were teaching the course, what would you do differently?
Student background information: age, level in school, number of distance delivered courses taken prior to this one.
What would you recommend to a friend planning to take this course?
What did you think would be covered in this course but was not?
Would you recommend this course to a friend? Why or why not?
Within the context of formative and summative evaluation, data may be collected through quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quantitative evaluation:
Involves asking questions which can be statistically tabulated and analyzed, frequently using a scale, check list, or yes/no responses.
Limits students to responding to the categories made available to them.
Needs a large student sample for relevant statistical analyses.
Quantitative methods may be most useful for gathering information on large numbers of respondents for whom more in-depth, personalized approaches are not feasible. However, they do have some significant drawbacks:
Many distance education courses have relatively small class sizes with students from various backgrounds. These small, stratified populations typically defy relevant statistical analysis.
Quantitative surveys typically result in a rate of return of under 50 percent. A low rate of return often suggests that only those feeling very positively or negatively about the course responded to the evaluation.
By definition and design, forced choice surveys offer respondents a limited number of possible response options. Therefore, fresh insights and unique perspectives falling outside the provided response categories go unreported.
The cumbersome and often tedious nature of quantitative data collection can discourage formative evaluation, and often results in an over-reliance on summative evaluation.
Statistical analysis often results in an illusion of precision that may be far from reality.
Qualitative evaluation:
Is typically more subjective. Involves gathering a wider range and depth of information. Is more difficult to tabulate into neat categories. Will be less affected by typical small class size. Is a more flexible and dynamic method. Is not limited to pre-conceived topic of inquiry. Allows for student output of topics.
Can use:
Open ended questioning -- with respondents asked to identify course strengths and weaknesses, suggest changes, explore attitudes towards distance delivery methods, etc..
Participant observation -- with the distance educator observing group dynamics and behavior while participating in the class as an observer, asking occasional questions, and seeking insights regarding the process of distance education.
Non-participant observation -- with the distance educator observing a course (e.g., an audioconference, interactive television class, etc..) without actually participating or asking questions.
Content analysis -- with the evaluator using predetermined criteria to review course documents including the syllabus and instructional materials as well as student assignments and course-related planning documents.
Interviews -- with a facilitator or specially trained individual collecting evaluative data through one-on-one and small-group interviews with students.
What to Evaluate
Consider the following areas:
Use of technology - familiarity, concerns, problems, positive aspects, attitude toward technology.
Class formats - effectiveness of lecture, discussion, question and answer; quality of questions or problems raised in class; encouragement given students to express themselves.
Class atmosphere - conduciveness to student learning.
Quantity and quality of interaction with other students and with instructor.
Course content - relevancy, adequate body of knowledge, organization.
Assignments - usefulness, degree of difficulty and time required, timeliness of feedback, readability level of print materials.
Tests - frequency, relevancy, sufficient review, difficulty, feedback.
Support services - facilitator, technology, library services, instructor availability.
Student achievement - adequacy, appropriateness, timeliness, student involvement.
Student attitude - attendance, assignments submitted, class participation.
Instructor - contribution as discussion leader, effectiveness, organization, preparation,enthusiasm, openness to student views.
Check out and adapt already published questionnaires; there’s no need to re-invent the wheel.
Draft and revise questions; change if necessary.
Make use of follow-up probes:
Alternate between instruction and interaction.
Sequence your questions for best effect - go ahead and ask for suggestions for improvement before asking for what is good. This will help convey sincerity for seeking improvements.
Place open ended questions after quick answer questions. This gives students built-in thinking time.
On summative evaluation, assure anonymity. This can be accomplished by having all questionnaires sent to a neutral site where they would be removed from their envelopes and forwarded to the instructor without a postmark.
Establish rapport by being interested and supportive. Withhold judgmental responses.
Adapt to the student in degree of formality and pace of communication.<
Use evaluation as a method for understanding teaching and learning.
Try to get both positive and negative feedback. It is important not only to know what is not working, but also what is working.
References
Angelo, T. & Cross, P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. San Francisco: Josey-Bass Publishers.
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
5、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist5.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 5: Instructional Television
Why Instructional Television?Advantages of Instructional Television
Limitations of Instructional Television
Designing Instruction for ITV
Conducting ITV Lessons
References
For Further Information
Why Instructional Television?
Instructional television (ITV), is an effective distance education delivery system that can be integrated into the curriculum at three basic levels:
Single lesson - Programs address one specific topic or concept, providing a lesson introduction, overview, or summary.
Selected unit - A series of programs providing the content foundation for a learning unit in the course curriculum.
Full course - Programs from one or more ITV series may be integrated into a full semester course typically in conjunction with instructional print materials.
ITV may be either passive or interactive. Passive ITV typically involves pre-produced programs which are distributed by video cassette or by video-based technologies such as broadcast, cable, or satellite. In contrast, interactive ITV provides opportunities for viewer interaction, either with a live instructor or a participating student site. For example, two-way television with two-way audio allows all students to view and interact with the teacher (see Lochte, 1993). At the same time, cameras at remote sites allow the teacher to view all participating students. It is also possible to configure the system so that all student sites may view one another.
Since most people have watched television, the medium is familiar.
Motion and visuals can be combined in a single format so that complex or abstract concepts can be illustrated through visual simulation. The old cliche "a picture is worth a thousand words" rings true.
Instructional television is an effective way to take students to new environments (the moon, a foreign country, or through the lens of a microscope).
Time and space can be collapsed, so that events can be captured and relayed as they happen.
It is very effective for introducing, summarizing, and reviewing concepts.
It can be used effectively as a motivational tool.
Broadcast quality ITV is expensive to create.
Video production is time consuming and can be technically demanding, often requiring relatively sophisticated production facilities and equipment.
Sites choosing to interactively participate in an ITV program may require specialized equipment, facilities, and staffing.
Most prepackaged ITV courses use a mass media approach to instruction aimed at the average student. As a result, they can be ineffective in serving students with special needs.
When used passively, without interaction, its instructional effectiveness can be limited.
Unless professionally produced, completed ITV programs often look amateurish.
Once completed, ITV programs can be difficult to revise and update.
Designing Instruction for ITV
In designing instruction for ITV, the challenge is to think in visual terms. Taking advantage of the visual imagery of ITV can counter an over-reliance on lecturing. Carefully planning ways to show instead of tell may improve the instructional effectiveness of ITV. It may be helpful to visually represent:
Outlines or lists Key points Complex material in a step-by-step fashion Relationships Information that needs to be summarized for retention and recall
Make use of:
Pictures -- to show what things look like. Diagrams -- to illustrate conceptual relationships, organizations, and structure of content material. Maps -- to show spatial relationships. Graphs, tables, and charts -- to summarize information.
Take advantage of video‘s ability to show movement to:
Demonstrate the operation of tools and equipment. Demonstrate skills that learners are expected to emulate. Conduct experiments in which the processes must be observed. Analyze change over time using animation, slow motion, or time lapse photography. Reveal the spatial, three-dimensional qualities of an object or structure. Transport learners to places or situations not otherwise in their experience. Present primary source materials for analysis, such as film of historical events or naturally occurring situations.
Because teachers and students are physically separated by a distance, the teacher‘s challenge is to psychologically reduce the gap not only through the appropriate use of technology but also through the use of effective teaching practices. Good teaching ensures that a rapport develops between students and teacher. Once basic teaching methods are considered, try employing the following three step strategy for conducting ITV lessons:
1. Set the Stage
Remember that it takes longer to deliver instruction at a distance than in a traditional face-to-face setting. Plan lessons accordingly. Practice in front of a live camera prior to class. If possible, have a colleague, a few target students, or a media technician view your presentation and on-camera presence, offering suggestions for improvement. Organize all class materials and visuals before the start of the class. It is best to have a trial run with technical staff so that all participants know the role they are expected to play. If using an overhead camera to electronically project visuals, understand its operation and limitations prior to the start of the class. Prepare viewers for new terminology to be used in the program, and answer any questions regarding the technical equipment being used, such as cameras, television monitors, audio equipment, etc.. Inform students if there will be camera operators or technicians in the classroom. Although the students may be initially curious, this will fade as the class progresses. In-class technicians are trained to be as unobtrusive as possible. Students should have the necessary background materials to make the best use of televised lessons. Consider the use of study questions to assist in focusing discussions. Consider team teaching to maintain viewer interest with a change of voice, image, and presentation style. If using guest speakers, give students necessary background information prior to the class. Do the same for the guest speakers. Let them know the specific purpose of their session, what is expected of them, and the general background of participating students.
2. During the ITV Session
Vary facial expressions, tone of voice, body movements, and eye contact with the camera to enhance verbal communication. Engage students by using humor, asking questions, involving students, and praising student contributions. Maintain energy and dynamism to attract and hold the distant learners‘ attention. Remember, enthusiasm is contagious. So is boredom. Present content in five to ten minute blocks interspersed with discussion. Alternate between instruction and interaction. Keep lecture sessions simple and clear. To help focus viewing, indicate key points to look for. Do not read material. Maintain a moderate speaking pace. Do not digress -- keep students on track. Include different kinds of student involvement-- watching, reading, writing, and talking. Vary the center of focus for activities from the on-camera presenter to a receive site group or individual. Incorporate timely breaks as a respite from the television monitor. Motivate peer learning and support by encouraging students to work together both in and out of class. Review the concepts discussed in the program and clarify any misunderstandings by asking focused questions. Integrate activities to reinforce the content presentation. These activities might include quizzes, worksheets, role-playing, and experiments.
Make sure opportunities are included to enhance student interaction by:
Planning a block of time for interaction and then letting students know in advance that interaction is anticipated. Initiating an interaction within the first twenty minutes will get students motivated to participate in learning rather than lulling them into just watching. Designating students at distant sites to lead discussions or survey the room for questions. Clearly defining discussion topics or questions and then allowing time for students to prepare responses. Assigning discussion questions in advance of the television session will help students prepare for the interaction. Have the questions appear in writing on the screen so students see and hear the questions. Encouraging student-to-student interaction by asking an in-class student or a student from a distant site to respond to questions. The instructor does not always have to answer questions. Functioning as content facilitator not just content provider.
3. Following the Session
Review the taped recordings of the presentation, either with technical staff, a colleague, or by yourself. Take notes for improving presentation, style, and delivery methods. Seek student feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional materials and the teaching strategies being used. Be open to new ideas and delivery techniques for improving instructional effectiveness.
References
Lochte, R.H. (1993). Interactive television and instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Wileman, R. (1993). Visual communicating. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Oliver, E.L.(1994). Video tools for distance education. In B. Willis (Ed.), Distance education: Strategies and tools (pp. 165-195). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
6、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist6.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 6: Computers in Distance Education
Why Computers in Distance Education
Advantages of Computers
Limitations of Computers
The Internet and Distance Education
Instructional Possibilities
Teaching Considerations
References
For Further Information
Why Computers in Distance Education?
In recent years, educators have witnessed the rapid development of computer networks, dramatic improvements in the processing power of personal computers, and striking advances in magnetic storage technology. These developments have made the computer a dynamic force in distance education, providing a new and interactive means of overcoming time and distance to reach learners.
Computer applications for distance education fall into four broad categories:
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) - uses the computer as a self-contained teaching machine to present discrete lessons to achieve specific but limited educational objectives. There are several CAI modes, including: drill and practice, tutorial, simulations and games, and problem-solving. Computer Managed Instruction (CMI) - uses the computer’s branching, storage, and retrieval capabilities to organize instruction and track student records and progress. The instruction need not be delivered via computer, although often CAI (the instructional component) is combined with CMI. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)- describes computer applications that facilitate communication. Examples include electronic mail, computer conferencing, and electronic bulletin boards. Computer-Based Multimedia- HyperCard, hypermedia, and a still-developing generation of powerful, sophisticated, and flexible computing tools have gained the attention of distance educators in recent years. The goal of computer-based multimedia is to integrate various voice, video, and computer technologies into a single, easily accessible delivery system.
Advantages of Computers
Computers can facilitate self-paced learning. In the CAI mode, for example, computers individualize learning, while giving immediate reinforcement and feedback. Computers are a multimedia tool. With integrated graphic, print, audio, and video capabilities, computers can effectively link various technologies. Interactive video and CD-ROM technologies can be incorporated into computer-based instructional units, lessons, and learning environments. Computers are interactive. Microcomputer systems incorporating various software packages are extremely flexible and maximize learner control. Computer technology is rapidly advancing. Innovations are constantly emerging, while related costs drop. By understanding their present needs and future technical requirements, the cost-conscious educator can effectively navigate the volatile computer hardware and software market. Computers increase access. Local, regional, and national networks link resources and individuals, wherever they might be. In fact, many institutions now offer complete undergraduate and graduate programs relying almost exclusively on computer-based resources.
Limitations of Computers
Computer networks are costly to develop. Although individual computers are relatively inexpensive and the computer hardware and software market is very competitive, it is still costly to develop instructional networks and purchase the system software to run them. The technology is changing rapidly. Computer technology evolves so quickly that the distant educator focused solely on innovation "not meeting tangible needs" will constantly change equipment in an effort to keep pace with the "latest" technical advancements. Widespread computer illiteracy still exists. While computers have been widely used since the 1960‘s, there are many who do not have access to computers or computer networks. Students must be highly motivated and proficient in computer operation before they can successfully function in a computer-based distance learning environment.
The Internet is the largest, most powerful computer network in the world. It encompasses 1.3 million computers with Internet addresses that are used by up to 30 million people in more than fifty countries. As more and more colleges, universities, schools, companies, and private citizens connect to the Internet either through affiliations with regional not-for-profit networks or by subscribing to information services provided by for-profit companies, more possibilities are opened for distance educators to overcome time and distance to reach students.
With access to the Internet, distance educators and their students can use:
Electronic mail (e-mail) - Like postal mail, e-mail is used to exchange messages or other information with people. Instead of being delivered by the postal service to a postal address, e-mail is delivered by Internet software through a computer network to a computer address. Bulletin boards - Many bulletin boards can be accessed through the Internet. Two common public bulletin boards on the Internet are USENET and LISTSERV. USENET is a collection of thousands of topically organized newsgroups, covering everything from supercomputer design to bungee cord jumping, and ranging in distribution from the whole world to single institutions. LISTSERV also provides discussion forums on a variety of topics broken out by topic or area of special interest. World-Wide Web (WWW) -The WWW is an exciting and innovative front-end to the Internet. Officially WWW is described as a "...wide-area hypermedia information retrieval initiative aiming to give universal access to a large universe of documents" (Hughes, 1994). The WWW provides Internet users with a uniform and convenient means of accessing the wide variety of resources (pictures, text, data, sound, video) available on the Internet. Popular software interfaces, such as Mosaic and Netscape, facilitate navigation and use of the WWW. The central organizing feature of the WWW is the "home page". Every organization and even every individual user of the WWW can create a home page that contains whatever information they want to present. The hypertext capabilities of the WWW facilitate linking of information within your own home page and with all other home pages on the WWW.
Distance educators can use the Internet and WWW to help students gain a basic understanding of how to navigate and take full advantage of the networked world into which they will be graduating. Some instructional possibilities of the Internet include:
Using e-mail for informal one-to-one correspondence. Feedback from the instructor can be received more quickly than messages sent by mail. Students can read messages at their convenience and easily store them for later reference. Establishing a classroom bulletin board. Distant students often work in isolation without the assistance and support of fellow students. Setting up a class bulletin board can encourage student-to-student interaction. With a class computer conference, individual students can post their comments or questions to the class, and every other individual is free to respond. The conference can also be used to post all modifications to the class schedule or curriculum, assignments/tests, and answers to assignments/tests. Engaging students in dialogue with other students, faculty, and researchers by encouraging them to join a bulletin board(s) on topic(s) related to the class. Developing a classroom home page. The home page can cover information about the class including the syllabus, exercises, literature references, and the instructor‘s biography. The instructor can also provide links to information on the WWW that would be useful to students in the class (e.g., real research data on agricultural markets, global climate change, or space missions). Other links could access library catalogs or each student‘s individual home page.
When incorporating the Internet into a distance delivered course, remember that:
All students in a course must have Internet and WWW access to ensure equal opportunities for computer interaction and feedback. Also, convenient access to a computer at home or work may influence student success. Students may face the concurrent challenges of learning basic computer skills, new software, and appropriate online communication skills. Trouble-shooting student computer problems will probably become a part of normal instructional responsibilities. Setting up a specific classroom conference for ongoing discussions of specific hardware and software problems may help students to work through these problems on their own. Some students might hesitate to contribute to computer conferences or to send e-mail because of a lack of familiarity with the proper protocols. Encourage students to use e-mail, classroom conferences, electronic bulletin boards, and the WWW early in the course so they overcome inhibitions. Specifying a minimum number of e-mail communications per week will encourage active participation. Using e-mail can help the instructor provide feedback more quickly than surface mail or telephone. Prompt response generally increases student motivation and performance. Prompt responses might not always be appropriate. Computer conferences can foster student-to-student interaction. To ensure that this interaction is sustained, work towards a facilitative role. It might be appropriate to delay response to a query in a classroom conference in order to allow students to respond to the issue and to each other. Becoming familiar with the resources available on the Internet and the most effective ways to use them will be part of the instructional challenge. A number of helpful guides to the Internet and WWW are available (see Kochmer, 1995; Hughes, 1994).
References
Kochmer, J. (1995). Internet passport: Northwestnet‘s guide to our world online. Bellevue, WA: NorthWestNet and Northwest Academic Computing Consortium, Inc.
Huges, K. (1994). Entering the World-Wide Web: A Guide to Cyberspace. Enterprise Integration Technologies.
7、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist7.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 7: Print in Distance Education
Why?
Formats of Print
Advantages
Designing Instruction
Limitations
References
For Further Information
Why Include Print?
Print is the foundation of distance education and the basis from which all other delivery systems have evolved. The first distance-delivered courses were offered by correspondence study, with print materials sent and returned to students by mail. While technological developments have added to the repertoire of tools available to the distance educator, print continues to be a significant component of all distance education programs.
Advantages of Print
Spontaneous. Print materials can be used in any setting without the need for sophisticated presentation equipment. Instructionally transparent. The medium of delivery should enhance, not compete with, the content for the learner’s attention. If the student reads well, the print medium is the most transparent instructional medium of all. Non-threatening. Reading is second nature to most students. As a result, they are easily able to focus on the content, without becoming mesmerized or frustrated by the process of reading itself. Easy to use. Given adequate light, print materials can be used any time and any place without the aid of supplemental resources such as electricity, viewing screen, and specially designed electronic classrooms. The portability of print is especially important for rural learners with limited access to advanced technology. Easily reviewed and referenced. Print materials are typically learner-controlled. As a result, the student rapidly moves through redundant sections, while focusing on areas demanding additional attention. Cost-effective. No instructional tool is less expensive to produce than print. In addition, facilities abound for the inexpensive duplication of these materials. Easily edited and revised. In comparison to technically sophisticated electronic software, print is both easy and inexpensive to edit and revise. Time-effective. When instructional print materials are created, the developer’s primary focus remains on content concerns, not the technical requirements of the delivery system.
Limitations of Print
Limited view of reality. Print, by its reliance on the written word, offers a vicarious view of reality. Despite the use of excellent sequential illustrations or photos, for example, it is impossible to adequately recreate motion in print. Passive and self-directed. Numerous studies have shown that higher learner motivation is required to successfully complete print-based courses. To a certain extent, the passive nature of print can be offset by systematic instructional design that seeks to stimulate the passive learner. Still, it takes more motivation to read a book or work through a written exercise than it does to watch a television program or participate in an audioconference with an instructor encouraging student participation and response. Feedback and interaction. Without feedback and interaction, instruction suffers, regardless of the delivery system in use. By nature, print materials are passive and self-directed. Even with print materials incorporating feedback mechanisms and interactive exercises, it is easy for learners to skip to the answer section. Dependent on reading skills. Thanks to television, most students have developed fairly good viewing skills by age four. These same children, however, often fail to develop adequate reading skills by age 12. Reading skills must often be improved. Lack of ability in this area cripples the effectiveness of even the most instructionally sound print material and must be overcome if print is to be used effectively.
Various print formats are available, including:
Textbooks. As in traditionally delivered courses, textbooks are the basis and primary source of content for the majority of distance-delivered courses. While textbooks should always be critically reviewed before adoption, this is especially critical when the learner and the instructor are not in daily contact. Study guides. Typically, distance educators use study guides to reinforce points made during class and through the use of other delivery systems. They will often include exercises, related readings and additional resources available to the student. Workbooks. In a distance education context workbooks are often used to provide course content in an interactive manner. A typical format might contain an overview, the content to be covered, one or more exercises or case studies to elaborate the points being made, and a quiz or test (with answer key) for self-assessment. In addition, there is typically some form of feedback, remediation, or “branching” loop to recycle students through the instruction as needed. Course syllabus. A comprehensive and well-planned course syllabus is the foundation of many distance-delivered courses. It provides course goals and objectives, performance expectations, descriptions of assignments, related readings (often by session), grading criteria, and a day-by-day overview of the material to be covered. The syllabus must be as complete as possible in order to guide the students through the course in the absence of daily contact with the instructor. Case studies. If written imaginatively, case studies are an extremely effective instructional tool. In fact, case studies are often designed around the limitations of print and intended to spark the students’ imaginations as they place themselves in the particular case under consideration. Many case studies present a content-based scenario. They raise questions, pose alternative solutions, and then branch students to different sections of the text. There, the consequences of the selected alternative are described.
Because print is largely a one-way communication medium, the challenge is to design instruction to maximize the amount of interaction in distance education print materials. Consider:
Writing style. Misanchuk (1994) suggests that distance educators write instructional materials with language more like that used for speaking than for writing journal articles or books. His tips for writing instructional materials include: Use short sentences. Avoid compound sentences. Avoid excess information in a sentence. Use the active voice. Use personal pronouns. Keep equivalent items parallel. List conditions separately. Avoid multiple negatives. Use point form. Use familiar examples. Write as you would speak. Avoid unnecessary and difficult words. Avoid jargon; use technical terms only when necessary. Put sentences and paragraphs into a logical sequence: first things that affect many, then things that affect few; first the general, then the specific; first permanent provisions, then temporary ones. Avoid cultural and gender stereotyping.
Focusing on content organization before developing content. Prior to content development, create an outline of the material to be covered. Print materials are often too wordy because the author is planning, organizing and writing at the same time. Instead, organize content based on the identified goals and objectives. At first, focus on systematically and creatively ordering the flow of topics, not polishing a finished product. The end result will be a well-organized content outline from which the written content will easily flow. Developing a course introduction. Misanchuk (1994) suggests developing a written course introduction that will be the very first thing a distant student sees. The course introduction can include biographical background information about the instructor, a course overview, course goals and aims, a listing of any textbooks or ancillary learning materials that will be needed, and information about assignments, examinations, and grading. Staying with a consistent format. Learner anxiety with the unknown can be reduced through consistency in instructional presentation. Develop an effective format and organizational scheme and stick with it. Use adequate headings and subheadings to visually guide the reader through the material. Using advance organizers. Advance organizers are a means to connect new material with a learner’s prior knowledge and cognitive structure. They should be of a more general and abstract character than the learning matter that follows and help the learner to relate different parts and concepts of teaching material to each other. Place the most general and comprehensive ideas at the beginning of a lesson and progress to more structured and detailed information. Using examples and analogies. In a traditional classroom, teachers spontaneously provide examples and analogies to illustrate a point that students are having difficulty understanding. Because distant students and their teachers may not have this type of interaction, include lots of good examples and analogies in print-based materials. Be sure, however, that these examples address the various cultural groups, ages and experiences of the students. Including questions. Questions in print material can stimulate the learner to be more active and to deal more intensively with the learning matter. Use questions that aim at understanding rather than merely reproduction and memorization of facts. Adding a table of contents. A detailed table of contents can help the learner to quickly refer to the appropriate section. Incorporating a glossary of terms. A glossary summarizes all the new, often technical terminology encountered in a document. It may be helpful to delineate glossary entries in the instructional material by putting them in boldface type.
References
Misanchuk, E.R. (1992). Preparing instructional text: Document design using desktop publishing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Misanchuk, E.R. (1994). Print tools in distance education. In B. Willis (Ed.), Distance education: Strategies and tools (pp.109-129). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
8、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist8.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 8: Strategies for Learning at a Distance
Profile of the Distant Student
Development as Learners
Improving Distant Learning
In Conclusion
References
For Further Information
The primary role of the student is to learn. Under the best of circumstances, this challenging task requires motivation, planning, and the ability to analyze and apply the information being taught. In a distance education setting, the process of student learning is more complex for several reasons (Schuemer, 1993):
Many distance-education students are older, have jobs, and families. They must coordinate the different areas of their lives which influence each other — their families, jobs, spare time, and studies. Distant students have a variety of reasons for taking courses. Some students are interested in obtaining a degree to qualify for a better job. Many take courses to broaden their education and are not really interested in completing a degree. In distance education, the learner is usually isolated. The motivational factors arising from the contact or competition with other students is absent. The student also lacks the immediate support of a teacher who is present and able to motivate and, if necessary, give attention to actual needs and difficulties that crop up during study. Distant students and their teachers often have little in common in terms of background and day-to-day experiences and therefore, it takes longer for student-teacher rapport to develop. Without face-to-face contact distant students may feel ill at ease with their teacher as an "individual" and uncomfortable with their learning situation. In distance education settings, technology is typically the conduit through which information and communication flow. Until the teacher and students become comfortable with the technical delivery system, communication will be inhibited.
Distant Students‘ Development as Learners
Beginning students may have some difficulty determining what the demands of a course of academic study actually are because they do not have the support of an immediate peer group, ready access to the instructor, or familiarity with the technology being used for delivery of the distance-education course. They may be unsure of themselves and their learning. Morgan (1991) suggests that distant students who are not confident about their learning tend to concentrate on memorizing facts and details in order to complete assignments and write exams. As a result, they end up with a poor understanding of course material. He views memorization of facts and details as a “surface approach” to learning and summarizes it as follows:
Surface approach: Focus on the "signs" (e.g., the text or instruction itself). Focus on discrete elements. Memorize information and procedures for tests. Unreflectively associate concepts and facts. Fail to distinguish principles from evidence, new information from old. Treat assignments as something imposed by the instructor. External emphasis focusing on the demands of assignments and exams leading to a knowledge that is cut-off from everyday reality.
Distant students need to become more selective and focused in their learning in order to master new information. The focus of their learning needs to shift them from a “surface approach” to a “deep approach”. Morgan (1991) summarizes this approach as follows:
Deep Approach: Focus on what is "signified" (e.g., the instructor’s arguments). Relate and distinguish new ideas and previous knowledge. Relate concepts to everyday experience. Relate and distinguish evidence and argument. Organize and structure content. Internal emphasis focusing on how instructional material relates to everyday reality.
The shift from “surface” to “deep” learning is not automatic. Brundage, Keane, and Mackneson (1993) suggest that adult students and their instructors must face and overcome a number of challenges before learning takes place including: becoming and staying responsible for themselves; "owning" their strengths, desires, skills, and needs; maintaining and increasing self-esteem; relating to others; clarifying what is learned; redefining what legitimate knowledge is; and dealing with content. These challenges are considered in relation to distance education:
"Becoming and staying responsible for themselves". High motivation is required to complete distant courses because the day-to-day contact with teachers and other students is typically lacking. Instructors can help motivate distant students by providing consistent and timely feedback, encouraging discussion among students, being well prepared for class, and by encouraging and reinforcing effective student study habits. "Owning one’s strengths, desires, skills, needs". Students need to recognize their strengths and limitations. They also need to understand their learning goals and objectives. The instructor can help distant students to explore their strengths/limitations and their learning goals/objectives by assuming a facilitative role in the learning process. Providing opportunities for students to share their personal learning goals and objectives for a course helps to make learning more meaningful and increases motivation. "Maintaining and increasing self-esteem". Distant students may be afraid of their ability to do well in a course. They are balancing many responsibilities including employment and raising children. Often their involvement in distance education is unknown to those they work with and ignored by family members. Student performance is enhanced if learners set aside time for their instructional activities and if they receive family support in their academic endeavors. The instructor can maintain student self-esteem by providing timely feedback. It is critical for teachers to respond to students’ questions, assignments, and concerns in a personalized and pleasant manner, using appropriate technology such as fax, phone, or computer. Informative comments that elaborate on the individual student’s performance and suggest areas for improvement are especially helpful. "Relating to others". Students often learn most effectively when they have the opportunity to interact with other students. Interaction among students typically leads to group problem solving. When students are unable to meet together, appropriate interactive technology such as E-mail should be provided to encourage small group and individual communication. Assignments in which students work together and then report back or present to the class as a whole, encourage student-to-student interaction. Ensure clear directions and realistic goals for group assignments (Burge, 1993). "Clarifying what is learned". Distant students need to reflect on what they are learning. They need to examine the existing knowledge frameworks in their heads and how these are being added to or changed by incoming information. Examinations, papers, and class presentations provide opportunities for student and teacher to evaluate learning. However, less formal methods of evaluation will also help the students and teacher to understand learning. For example, periodically during the course the instructor can ask students to write a brief reflection on what they have learned and then provide an opportunity for them to share their insights with other class members. "Redefining what legitimate knowledge is". Brundage, Keane, and Mackneson (1993) suggest that adult learners may find it difficult to accept that their own experience and reflections are legitimate knowledge. If the instructor takes a facilitative rather than authoritative role, students will see—their own experience as valuable and important to their further learning. Burge (1993) suggests having learners use first-person language to help them claim ownership of personal values, experiences, and insights. "Dealing with content". Student learning is enhanced when content is related to examples. Instructors tend to teach using examples that were used when they received their training. For distance learning to be effective, however, instructors must discover examples that are relevant to their distant students. Encourage students to find or develop examples that are relevant to them or their community.
In Conclusion
Teaching and learning at a distance is demanding. However, learning will be more meaningful and “deeper” for distant students, if the students and their instructor share responsibility for developing learning goals and objectives; actively interacting with class members; promoting reflection on experience; relating new information to examples that make sense to learners; maintaining self-esteem; and evaluating what is being learned. This is the challenge and the opportunity provided by distance education.
References
Brundage, D., Keane, R., and Mackneson, R. (1993). Application of learning theory to the instruction of adults. In Thelma Barer-Stein and James A. Draper (Eds.) The craft of teaching adults (pp. 131-144). Toronto, Ontario: Culture Concepts. (ED 362 644).
Burge, E. (1993). Adult distance learning: Challenges for contemporary practice. In Thelma Barer-Stein and James A. Draper (Eds.) The craft of teaching adults (pp.215-230). Toronto, Ontario: Culture Concepts. (ED 362 644).
Morgan, A. (1991). Research into student learning in distance education. Victoria, Australia: University of South Australia, Underdale. (ED 342 371).
Schuemer, R. (1993). Some psychological aspects of distance education. Hagen, Germany: Institute for Research into Distance Education. (ED 357 266).
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Guide edited by Tania Gottschalk.
9、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist9.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 9: Distance Education: Research
Common Research Questions
Distance vs. Traditional Education
Why are Students Successful?
Why is Instruction Successful?
How Important is Interaction?
Cost vs. Benefits
References
For Further Information
Because distance education is perceived as an increasingly effective method of instruction, educational researchers have examined the purposes and situations for which distance education is best suited. Frequently asked questions cluster in five areas:
Is technology-assisted, distant teaching as effective as traditional face-to-face teaching? What factors determine the most effective mix of technology in a given distant teaching situation? What are the characteristics of effective distant students and teachers? How important is teacher-student and student-student interaction in the distance education process and in what form(s) can this interaction most effectively take place? What cost factors should be considered when planning or implementing distance education programs and how are those costs offset by benefits to the learner?
Research indicates that the instructional format itself (e.g., interactive video vs. videotape vs. "live" instructor) has little effect on student achievement as long as the delivery technology is appropriate to the content being offered and all participants have access to the same technology. Other conclusions drawn from this line of research suggest:
Achievement on various tests administered by course instructors tends to be higher for distant as opposed to traditional students (Souder, 1993), yet no significant difference in positive attitudes toward course material is apparent between distant and traditional education (Martin & Rainey, 1993). Conventional instruction is perceived to be better organized and more clearly presented than distance education (Egan, et al., 1991). The organization and reflection needed to effectively teach at a distance often improves an instructor‘s traditional teaching. Future research should focus on the critical factor in determining student achievement: the design of instruction itself (Whittington, 1987).
Research suggests distant students bring basic characteristics to their learning experience which influence their success in coursework. Distance education students: Are voluntarily seeking further education.
Have post-secondary education goals with expectations for higher grades (Schlosser & Anderson, 1994). Are highly motivated and self-disciplined. Are older.
Studies also conclude that similar factors determine successful learning whether the students are distant or traditional. These factors include:
Willingness to initiate calls to instructors for assistance. Possessing a more serious attitude toward the courses. Employment in a field where career advances can be readily "achieved through academic upgrading in a distance education environment" (Ross & Powell, 1990). Previous completion of a college degree (Bernt & Bugbee, 1993).
Good distance teaching practices are fundamentally identical to good traditional teaching practices and "those factors which influence good instruction may be generally universal across different environments and populations." (Wilkes & Burnham, 1991). Because distance education and its technologies require extensive planning and preparation, distance educators must consider the following in order to improve their effectiveness (Schlosser & Anderson, 1994):
Extensive pre-planning and formative evaluation is necessary. Teachers cannot "wing it". Distance learners value instructors who are well prepared and organized (Egan, et al., 1991). Learners benefit significantly from a well-designed syllabus and presentation outlines (Egan, et al., 1991). Structured note taking, using tools such as interactive study guides, and the use of visuals and graphics as part of the syllabus and presentation outlines contribute to student understanding of the course. However, these visuals must be tailored to the characteristics of the medium and to the characteristics of the students. Teachers must be properly trained both in the use of equipment and in those techniques proven effective in the distance education environment. Learners get more from the courses when the instructor seems comfortable with the technology, maintains eye contact with the camera, repeats questions, and possesses a sense of humor (Egan, et al., 1991).
Many distant learners require support and guidance to make the most of their distance learning experiences (Threlkeld & Brzoska, 1994). This support typically takes the form of some combination of student-instructor and student-student interaction.
Research findings on the need for interaction have produced some important guidelines for instructors organizing courses for distant students:
Learners value timely feedback regarding course assignments, exams, and projects (Egan, et al., 1991). Learners benefit significantly from their involvement in small learning groups. These groups provide support and encouragement along with extra feedback on course assignments. Most importantly, the groups foster the feeling that if help is needed it is readily available. Learners are more motivated if they are in frequent contact with the instructor. More structured contact might be utilized as a motivational tool (Coldeway, et al., 1980). Utilization of on-site facilitators who develop a personal rapport with students and who are familiar with equipment and other course materials increases student satisfaction with courses (Burge & Howard, 1990). The use of technologies such as fax machines, computers, and telephones can also provide learner support and interaction opportunities.
s
When establishing a distance education program, one of the first things considered is the cost of the system. Several cost components factor into the design of a distance education system (Threlkeld & Brzoska, 1994):
Technology - hardware (e.g., videotape players, cameras) and software (e.g., computer programs). Transmission - the on-going expense of leasing transmission access (e.g., T-1, satellite, microwave). Maintenance - repairing and updating equipment. Infrastructure - the foundational network and telecommunications infrastructure located at the originating and receiving campuses. Production - technological and personnel support required to develop and adapt teaching materials. Support - miscellaneous expenses needed to ensure the system works successfully including administrative costs, registration, advising/counseling, local support costs, facilities, and overhead costs. Personnel - to staff all functions previously described.
Although the costs of offering distance education courses may be high, there are high costs associated with offering conventional courses. Benefits of distance education courses to the learner include (Ludlow, 1994):
Accessible training to students in rural areas. Students may complete their course of study without suffering the loss of salary due to relocation. Students are exposed to the expertise of the most qualified faculty.
Perhaps the question institutions must answer is whether it is part of their mission as educators to offer programs to those who might not be reached without distance education. The primary benefit to educational institutions through distance education may be the increased number of non-traditional students they are able to attract and serve. Research also suggests that as programs become more efficient, program costs should decrease (Ludlow, 1994).
References
Bernt, F.L. & Bugbee, A.C. (1993). Study practices and attitudes related to academic success in a distance learning programme. Distance Education, 14(1), 97-112.
Burge, E.J., & Howard, J.L. (1990). Audio-conferencing in graduate education: A Case Study. The American Journal of Distance Education, 4(2), 3-13.
Coldeway, D.O., MacRury, K., & Spencer, R. (1980). Distance education from the learner‘s perspective: The results of individual learner tracking at Athabasca University. Edmonton, Alberta: Athabasca University. (ED 259 228).
Egan, M.W., Sebastian, J., & Welch, M. (1991, March). Effective television teaching: Perceptions of those who count most...distance learners. Proceedings of the Rural Education Symposium, Nashville, TN. (ED 342 579).
Ludlow, B.L. (1994). A comparison of traditional and distance education models. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education, Austin, TX. (ED 369 599).
Martin, E.E., & Rainey, L. (1993). Student achievement and attitude in a satellite-delivered high school science course. The American Journal of Distance Education, 7(1), 54-61.
Ross, L.R., & Powell, R. (1990). Relationships between gender and success in distance education courses: A preliminary investigation. Research in Distance Education, 2(2), 10-11.
Schlosser, C.A., & Anderson, M.L. (1994). Distance education: A review of the literature. Ames, IA: Iowa Distance Education Alliance, Iowa State University. (ED 382 159).
Souder, W.E. (1993). The effectiveness of traditional vs. satellite delivery in three management of technology master‘s degree programs. The American Journal of Distance Education, 7(1), 37-53.
Threlkeld, R., & Brzoska, K. (1994). Research in distance education. In B. Willis (Ed.), Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Whittington, N. (1987). Is instructional television educationally effective? A research review. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1(1), 47-57.
Wilkes, C.W., & Burnham, B.R. (1991). Adult learner motivations and electronics distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(1), 43-50.
10、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist10.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 10: Interactive Videoconferencing in Distance Education
Why Interactive Videoconferencing
The Technology of IV
Advantages of Interactive Video
Limitations of Interactive Video
Types of Videoconferencing Systems
Designing Instruction for Interactive Video
Instructional Strategies
Training for Instructors and Students
References
For Further Information
Why Interactive Videoconferencing?
Interactive Videoconferencing (IV) is an effective tool that may be used in distance education settings. This system can be integrated into the distance education program with minimal adaptation to the curriculum and course and is designed to support two-way video and audio communication between multiple locations.
The Technology of IV
Most IV systems utilize compressed digital video for the transmission of motion images over data networks such as high capacity Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN). The video compression process decreases the amount of data transmitted over the lines by transmitting only the changes in the picture. By minimizing the bandwidth required to transmit the images, video compression also reduces the transmission cost.
Interactive videoconferences are often transmitted on dedicated T-1 phone lines. These high speed lines are very effective for videoconferencing, but they are typically leased circuits with an expensive monthly cost. The fixed monthly charge is usually based on distance, not usage. Therefore, the cost effectiveness of IV systems increases with use. Interactive videoconferencing systems can operate at different data rates, at various fractions of T-1 capacity, enabling the transmission of multiple simultaneous videoconferences over the same T-1 circuit. An IV system can also share a T-1 circuit with other digital data uses such as Internet transmissions or file transfers.
Point-to-point
Interactive videoconferencing is commonly used to connect two locations using sophisticated computer technology. The core of IV is the codec (coder/decoder). This is the electronic device that transmits and receives the video signals that the class members will see on their television monitors (Galbreath, 1995). It may be easier to think of the codec as an extremely sophisticated modem. A modem takes digital data and transmits it over regular phone lines. The codec takes analog signals, compresses and digitizes them, and transmits the signals over digital phone lines (Woodruff and Mosby, 1996).
Other types of equipment, such as television monitors, are needed to make IV successful. In addition, various forms of instructional technology can be incorporated into IV, including video cassette recorders/players, microphones, cameras, and computers (Reed and Woodruff, 1995).
Point-to-Multipoint
Some systems are also capable of simultaneously connecting more than two sites through the use of a multi-point control unit, or MCU. Multi-point conferencing can be effective although the scheduling, technical, and logistical dimensions of MCU conferences can be imposing.
Dial Out Capability
A relatively new “dial out” feature, allows the use of multiple telephone lines to connect two or more sites in the same conference. Simultaneously accessing multiple lines may be difficult in small areas. In addition, the cost of the telephone line usage may be prohibitive since the cost of the call would be multiplied by the number of lines utilized in the conference.
Advantages of Interactive Video
Interactive video can be effective because it:
Allows “real time” visual contact between students and the instructor or among students at different sites. Supports the use of diverse media (Reed and Woodruff, 1995). Blackboards, handwritten documents, and videos may be incorporated at all sites. Enables connection with experts in other geographical locations (Reed and Woodruff, 1995). Can provide access to at-risk or special needs students (Woodruff and Mosby, 1996). Provides additional access to students at remote sites.
Limitations of Interactive Video
As with any technology, interactive video has its limitations:
The initial cost of the equipment and leasing the lines to transmit conferences may be prohibitive. Companies which produce codecs have each developed unique methods of compression which are incompatible, although protocols have been established to allow communication among brand names. However, this “universal standard” compromises resolution and quality to a certain degree. Unless a strong effort is made by the instructor, students not located with the instructor may remain uninvolved in the course. If visuals, like handwritten or copied materials, are not properly prepared, students may have a difficult time reading them. If the “pipe” that carries the transmission among sites is not large enough, the students may observe “ghost images” when rapid movement occurs in “real time” (Reed and Woodruff, 1995). If the system is not properly configured, class members may observe an audio “echo” effect (Reed and Wooduff, 1995). The result is audio interference that detracts from the learning environment.
Types of Videoconferencing Systems
Small room videoconferencing. This system is designed primarily for small groups (1-12 participants) at all sites seated around a conference table (Woodruff and Mosby, 1996). Classroom videoconferencing. This type of system usually uses high quality AV components, codecs, and an interface that allows all participants to be seen on the monitors. Desktop videoconferencing. This system utilizes a personal computer and videoconferencing software. These systems are less expensive, but offer limited resolution. They are most effective for individual and small group use (Woodruff and Mosby, 1996).
Designing Instruction for Interactive Video
When designing instruction to be delivered over IV, the instructor should focus attention on all students, not just those at the “home” site. Lessons should incorporate a variety of activities for all students at the various sites. Use small group activities, student presentations, and an occasional break to add variety to the lesson. As a rule of thumb, instructors should change instruction methods every 10-15 minutes. In other words, switch from lecture to question-answer to small group activity on a regular basis.
It is often helpful to bring guest lecturers into the classroom. It may also be helpful to have guest speakers at one or more of the distant sites. This will encourage involvement of the distant students, as well as allowing the students at the origination site to “see what it is like” to have the teacher at another location.
When preparing class visuals, keep in mind that small fonts and light colors do not show up well over the monitors. A variety of formatting will also assist in maintaining student interest and attention. When formatting visuals, be sure that they will fit on the television monitor (Reed and Woodruff, 1995).
Establish Class Expectations
In the distance education classroom, some students may adopt the “TV” attitude, expecting the course to be entertaining, not educational (Reed and Woodruff, 1995). Address this attitude through well planned and focused presentations with emphasis on teacher-student interaction.
Reduce Distractions
Students should also be forewarned to minimize extraneous noise and activity (Reed and Woodruff, 1995). Both detract from the quality of the course. Use Variety and interaction.
The instructor should begin the course by preparing the learners for an active experience. Interactive videoconferencing is interactive, unlike regular television, and students can make the class much more interesting by being actively involved.
Encourage Dialogue
By asking questions and noting body language, instructors can ascertain the interest and comprehension of the students at both all sites. This kind of attention will make all students feel more comfortable.
It is important that an instructor be taught how to use all features of the equipment. A short session (30 minutes) should be sufficient to give the instructor a “hands-on” overview of the equipment features. It would also be helpful to provide the instructor with a quick reference sheet outlining major functions.
Some of the critical operations that an instructor should be capable of performing are:
Turning on the codec and the monitors. Dialing the distant site(s) to establish a link. Controlling camera focus and field at the origination site and at the distant site(s). Adjusting the volume to an acceptable level. Dialing out to a remote location. Selecting the appropriate data rate. Re-setting “echo canceling” capability. Switching to and from the document camera. Switching to and from the computer output. Utilizing a computer to generate and display multimedia presentations. Using the VCR to broadcast a video for all locations. Terminating the link with the distant site(s). Shutting down the equipment.
Some institutions have technicians who will assist the instructor in setting up or monitoring the videoconference. However, the instructor should still be aware of the process because the technician may not always be available.
Student training may also be critical since they may be called upon to operate the equipment if the instructor is at another site, is unavailable, or if a guest speaker needs assistance.
Interactive videoconferencing can be an effective instructional tool for the distance educator. As with other technologies, its usefulness is directly related to the instructor’s understanding of its benefits, limitations, and utilization strategies.
References
Galbreath, J. (1995) Compressed Digital Videoconferencing. Educational Technology, 35(1), 31-38.
Glossary of Terms. (1996).
Reed, J. and Woodruff, M. (1995). Using compressed video for distance learning.http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/vidconf/Using.html.
Woodruff, M & Mosby, J. (1996). A brief description of videoconferencing. Videoconferencing in the classroom and library.
11、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist11.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 11: Distance Education and the WWW
What is the WWW?
Why Use the WWW for Distance Education
Developing a Home Page for Distant Students
What Should I Put on the Home Page?
References
For Further Information
The Internet is the world’s largest, most powerful computer network connecting personal computers, sophisticated mainframes, and high speed supercomputers around the globe. Current estimates suggest that over four million computers are part of the Internet (Kochmer, 1995).
Because a myriad of computers and programs are part of the Internet, incompatibility problems can result because information is created using different computers and software. In 1989, a group of scientists at theEuropean Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland began developing an Internet tool that would link information produced by all of the CERN researchers. The tool provided a way to link textual information on different computers and created by different scientists. The object was to overcome issues of incompatibility and utilize a new way of linking made possible by computers, called “hypertext”. Rather than presenting information in a linear or hierarchical fashion, hypertext permits information to be linked in a web-like structure. Nodes of information can be linked to other nodes of information in multiple ways. As a result, users can dynamically criss-cross the information web using pieces in the order most convenient to them. The CERN project resulted in an innovative front-end to the Internet, now referred to as theWorld-Wide Web (WWW).
The WWW provides users with a uniform and convenient means of accessing the vast resources of the Internet. In 1993, theNational Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois pushed the CERN scientists‘ idea further by creating a software tool called Mosaic. Mosaic is an easy to use graphical user interface that permits text, graphics, sound and video to be hyperlinked. Mosaic was the first of the Internet tools that are now referred to as “ Web browsers”. Other well-known browsers includeNetscape (the first commercial browser developed by some of the programmers involved with the Mosaic project) andMicrosoft’s Internet Explorer.
Web browsers permit users to connect to the Internet and facilitate accessing information located on another remote computer. The Web browser links to the remote computer just long enough so that the information you need can be sent to your computer for you to view. Documents created to be viewed by a browser are formatted using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
HTML solves incompatibility problems by using standardized tags which indicate such things as whether a piece of text should be plain, bold, italic, or linked to another piece of text. Pages of information on a computer formatted with HTML and accessible to someone with a Web browser, are referred to as "home pages" or "Web pages".
Why Use the WWW for Distance Learning?
The WWW and Web browsers have made the Internet a more user-friendly environment. The ability to integrate graphics, text, and sound into a single tool means that novice users do not have to struggle with such a steep learning curve. In addition, organizations and individuals can create home pages independently and link to other home pages on their own computers or to pages created by others on different computer systems.
For educators, the WWW provides an exciting new opportunity for distance teaching and learning. The WWW can be used by the distance educator to build a classroom home page. The home page can cover information about the class including the syllabus, exercises, literature references, and instructor’s biography. The instructor can also provide links to information on the WWW that would be useful to students in the class (e.g., research data on agricultural markets, global climate change, or space missions). Other links can access library catalogs or each student‘s individual home page. In addition, the home page can link students to a discussion list or listserv that set up for student communication. It is also a relatively simple matter to use the homepage to create forms that students can fill out and that will end up being sent to you as an e-mail message.
Distance educators who are ready to develop a web presence, should avoid the following pitfalls:
Rushing in without a master plan. Don’t get so caught up in learning HTML and developing the home page that the purpose for developing your presence on the WWW is lost. Spend less time struggling with HTML, developing amusing graphics or playing with possible background and more time considering the purpose and content of the home page. Before you start your home page: Think about your reason for developing a Web presence. Will your home page be a stand alone course or will you be using it in conjunction with other technologies such as video or audio? Sound instructional design principles apply to home pages just as with any other materials prepared for a course. Become familiar with new software tools for developing home pages. Computer software tools such asHotMetal andHotDog mean that anyone familiar with using word processing software can develop a good looking and functional home page. Reviews of other such computer software tools are available on the WWW and many of them can be downloaded for a free trial. Utilize information that already has been developed for your course. If you already have your notes and syllabi in word processed form, make use of tools such as HotDog to format them for distribution on the WWW. Look at what is already available. Hundreds of home pages have already been developed for courses. Some of these home pages allow students to complete an entire course from the WWW and others are developed in conjunction with lectures delivered on-campus or by video or audio.
Laying out home pages poorly and inconsistently. To avoid ugly and confusing home pages, consider the following: Consulting sites on the WWW which provide information on home page layout and style. A popular site is theWeb Style Manual. Utilizing a consistent format for each of your pages. Based on suggestions made by the above mentioned style manuals, develop a consistent format for each web page. While colored or patterned backgrounds can be used on homepages, plain grey or white backgrounds make text easier to read. Keeping page lengths short. Your main index should jump to a lot of shorter pages. In cases where page information is long, index internally so that the student can jump to specific information as needed. Maximizing links to internal information and minimizing links to external information. The purpose of your home page is to provide information on a specific subject area. Only provide external links to home pages that provide useful related information for your students.
Using unnecessarily large graphics or including sound/video clips. Consider that while graphics can add appeal to a home page, a large number of Internet users are still accessing the Internet using a 14.4K modem. Graphic images which are 20K to 40K are acceptable for people with 14.4K modems. Pages which take too long to download frustrate students and may force them to beat a hasty retreat. If your home page requires extensive use of graphics to demonstrate points, warn your students. If you plan to use sound or video clips, you will need to be sure that all of your distant students have access to computers that have sound and video cards installed in them.
Letting the home page become out-of-date. The home page should be an ongoing part of course development. Make sure that you add or change information as necessary. Periodically verify whether other home pages to which you are linking still exist.
What Should I Put on the Home Page?
The home page should help your students to find necessary course information, learn the material, and get involved in thinking about the course material (Ackermann, 1996). Properly designed home pages will encourage thought, discussion and active participation by your distant students. The following elements can be included in your class home page (Ackermann, 1996):
Course & Instructor Information — Include such items as course topics to be covered, your office hours, textbook information, course objectives, and grading policies.
Class Communication — Provide access to your e-mail, link to discussion groups that you have set up for student-to-student communication, and create forms that your students can use to report problems or provide biographical information about themselves.
Assignments and Tests — Distribute assignments and tests, provide for online completion or submission, and give solutions, hints, or samples of what you expect.
Material covered in the classroom — Make lecture notes and handouts available either as web pages or as downloadable files.
Demonstrations, Animation, Video, Audio — This is more complex than other suggestions and will require that your students have access to computers with sound and video cards.
Reference Material — List materials in print and electronic form that supplement the textbook. To avoid copyright problems, electronic articles should either be written by you or in the public domain (e.g., government documents or are already available on the WWW with author’s permission to distribute). In addition, provide links to other pages which cover information on the topic, similar courses that may also be available on WWW, your university library, and other on-campus resources that may help your student complete the course.
References
Ackermann, E. (1996). Tools for teaching: The World Wide Web and a Web Browser. (http://www.mwc.edu/ernie/facacad/WWW-Teaching.html).
Kochmer, J. (1995). Internet passport: Northwestnet‘s guide to our world online. Bellevue, WA: NorthWestNet and Northwest Academic Computing Consortium, Inc.
Hughes, K. (1994). Entering the World-Wide Web: A guide to cyberspace. Enterprise Integration Technologies.
O‘Donnell, J.J. New tools for teaching.
12、http://www.uidaho.edu/eo/dist12.html
DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 12: Copyright and Distance Education
Why Copyright?
What is Copyright?
What is the Law?
What is Fair Use?
How Can Copyright Permission be Obtained?
Copyright in Multimedia Productions
Suggestions for Distance Education
Conclusion
Note
References
Further Information
Why Copyright?
Educators have always utilized outside resources to enhance the learning experience for their students. These resources can range from a newspaper clipping to a book to a movie. All of these items, and many other resources, are copyrighted materials.
The Copyright Law of 1976 established the rights of the copyright holder as well as providing for the use of copyrighted materials, especially in educational settings. In order to comply with the law in the area of copyright and proper use of copyrighted materials, educators must be aware of the law and the parameters that govern proper or “fair use” of copyrighted publications (Dalziel, 1995).
There are both civil and criminal penalties for infringement of copyright law. Civil awards generally include a monetary award of up to $1,000,000 (Mason, 1996), attorney fees, an injunction against the violator, and confiscation of the materials that used the copyrighted works (17 USC sections 502-505).
Distance educators have a unique dilemma when dealing with copyright law. Due to the time that the law was passed and the rapid advancement of technology for distance education, the provisions for education in the copyright law are often unclear for the distance education classroom.
What is Copyright?
A copyright grants the holder the sole right to reproduce or grant permission to others to reproduce the copyrighted works. The copyright holder is defined as the person who owns the exclusive rights to a work. The protection is limited to original works, whether or not they have been published. However, it is the expression of the idea that is copyrighted, not the idea in and of itself (Brinson and Radcliffe, 1994).
Copyright may be held on a variety of original works which include: literary works, musical works, dramatic works, graphical works, motion pictures, sound recordings, and architectural works (17 USC section 102, and Brinson and Radcliffe, 1994).
For works created prior to 1978, copyright protection lasts 75 years from the date of first publication or 100 years from the date of creation of the work, contingent on which date allows the copyright to expire first. For works created after 1978, protection begins at the creation of the work and lasts 50 years after the death of the author (17 USC section 104A).
The Copyright Law of 1976 defined the right of the copyright holder, items that may be copyrighted, fair use guidelines, etc. The right to a work may be used, sold, or given away as the copyright holder deems appropriate. The exclusive rights provided for in the Act (17 USC section 106) include:
to reproduce the copyrighted work in any format; to prepare derivative works; to distribute copies of the copyrighted work to the public by sale, rent, lease, or gift; to perform the copyrighted work publicly (in the case of plays, musical recordings, movies, etc.); and to display the copyrighted work publicly (in the case of literary, musical, pictorial, graphic works, etc.)
The concept of “fair use” was established in the Copyright Law of 1976. It specifies situations in which copyrighted materials may be used without express permission of the copyright holder (17 USC section 107). However, with the technology available today, it is very easy to abuse the “fair use” provision. The US House of Representatives suggested that the three major considerations in determining fair use should be: brevity of the selection, spontaneity of the decision, and the cumulative effect of the use of the selection (HR 1476, 1976).
Section 107 of the Copyright Law lists four factors that define “fair use” (17 USC section 107):
The purpose and character of the use must be educational or non profit in nature. The nature of the copyrighted work. Copied material must be an excerpt or a portion of the original work without being a critical portion. The teacher may not impair the marketability of the work. This is the most difficult condition to determine and is the most controversial (Dalziel, 1995).
Publishers and educators agreed to more specific guidelines which will provide a list of safe parameters in which colleges may operate. However, if a college exceeds the guidelines, they will open themselves to a lawsuit to challenge the use as fair. Congress never agreed to these guidelines, but since they were established by a diverse group of educators and copyright holders, courts tend to recognize their validity (Dalziel, 1995).
These guidelines indicated that copying is allowed when the instructor decides to use a work spontaneously for educational purposes (NACS and AAP, 1991) and also outline the length of works that may be copied:
A complete article or story less than 2,500 words; 1,000 words or 10% (whichever is shorter) of a prose work that is excerpted; One illustration, chart, diagram, or picture per book or periodical issue; and A short poem of less than 250 words, or an excerpt of a longer poem of not more than 250 words. The guidelines also require that the copying be for only one course, and no more than one short poem, article, or story or two excerpts can be copied from the works of any one author. Lastly, all copied materials MUST show the original copyright notice from the work.
There are also several prohibitions related to fair use. These are guidelines, and are not the law (NACS and AAP, 1991).
Unauthorized copying may not be used to replace an anthology or compilation. Unauthorized copies may not be made of consumable works such as workbooks or standardized tests. Unauthorized copying may not substitute for the purchase of books, authorized reprints, or periodicals. Unauthorized copying may not be directed by a higher authority, such as a department head or dean. The same instructor may not copy the same item without permission from term to term. Students cannot be charged beyond the actual cost of photocopying.
Copyright permission must be obtained from the copyright holder of the work in which you are interested. However, copyright notice is optional for works published on or after March 1, 1989, so tracking down the copyright holder may be difficult (NACS and AAP, 1991).
When requesting copyright permission, include all of the following information (NACS and AAP, 1991):
Full name(s) of the author, editor, and/or translator; Title, edition, and volume number of the work; Copyright date of the work; ISBN for books or ISSN for magazines; Exact pages, figures, and illustrations you wish to use; The number of copies to be made; If the material will be used alone or in combination with other works; Name of the college or university; Date when the material will be used; and Instructor’s full name, address, and telephone number.
As distance educators, preparing multimedia presentations is a viable teaching strategy. In doing so, the instructor must keep in mind some basic principles (Brinson and Radcliffe, 1994):
Combining content from other sources can be copyright protected. Original multimedia works are copyrighted.
In 1995, the Consortium of College and University Media Centers established a working group of educators and copyright holders to establish a group of mutually agreed upon guidelines for multimedia fair use (Dalziel, 1995). Although no conclusions have been reached, those involved tend to agree with the following statements (Dalziel, 1995):
Educators may use their own multimedia presentations for educational use. Educators may use unreleased materials over a closed circuit, and access to material must be limited to class members. Commercial reproduction or distribution must have copyright permission. It is strongly recommended that multimedia producers obtain copyright permission during, not after, the production is developed.
There are several precautionary steps that may be taken in order to avoid copyright infringement. This is not a complete list, but rather highlights that will assist in avoiding illegal copying of materials (Bruwelheide, 1994):
Utilize the copyright policy adopted by your governing agency. Provide instructor and staff training in current copyright law and institutional policy. Do not hesitate to request permission. When in doubt, ask. Be aware of the law, but realize that a great deal of educational copying is legitimate. If you are copying to avoid purchase of a text, you are probably in violation of the law. Give proper copyright credit. Label equipment that may be used for unauthorized copying with a restriction.
Conclusion
A basic knowledge of copyright law is essential for any educator. Instructors in a distance education classroom are subject to additional concerns due to the nature of the educational environment. This issue concerns the instructor, the students, the administration, and the institution with which they are all involved, and it is not an issue that can be taken lightly.
Copyright law and intellectual property rights are extremely complex issues. If you have questions regarding a specific circumstance, please contact your university counsel’s office and the additional references used to create this publication.
References
Brinson, J. D. and Radcliffe, M. F. (1994). Intellectual property law primer for multimedia developers.
Bruwelheide, J. H. (1994) In Willis, B. (Ed.) Distance Education: Copyright Issues. Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. Educational Technology Publications: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Dalziel, C. (1995). Copyright and You: Fair Use Guidelines for Distance Education. Techtrends, October, 6-8.
House Report (HR) No. 1476. (1976). 94th Congress, 2nd Session.
Mason, A. (1996). Copyright and trademark law.
National Association of College Stores (NACS), Inc. and Association of American Publishers (AAP). (1991). Questions and Answers on Copyright for the Campus Community: National Association of College Stores, Inc., Oberline, OH.
17 United States Code (USC). U. S. Copyright Act, As Amended.
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DISTANCE EDUCATION AT A GLANCE
GUIDE 13: Glossary of Distance Education Terminology
Why a Glossary?
As distance education becomes more prominent on the university campus, more and more instructors and students are becoming involved in both the technical and educational aspects of distance education. It is important to understand distance education related terminology if the instruction and delivery is to be understood by all persons involved.
The Glossary
Analog: A signal that is received in the same form in which it is transmitted, while the amplitude and frequency may vary.
Amplitude: The amount of variety in a signal. Commonly thought of as the height of a wave. American Standard Code for Information Interexchange (ASCII): A computer language used to convert letters, numbers, and control codes into a digital code understood by most computers.
Asynchronous: Communication in which interaction between parties does not take place simultaneously.
Asynchronous Transmission Mode (ATM): A method of sending data in irregular time intervals using a code such as ASCII. ATM allows most modern computers to communicate with one another easily.
Audio Bridge: A device used in audioconferencing that connects multiple telephone lines. Audioconferencing: Voice only connection of more than two sites using standard telephone lines.
Backbone: A primary communication path connecting multiple users.
Band: A range of frequencies between defined upper and lower limits.
Bandwidth: Information carrying capacity of a communication channel.
Binary: A computer language developed with only two letters in its alphabet.
Bit: Abbreviation for a single binary digit.
Byte: A single computer word, generally eight bits.
Browser: Software that allows you to find and see information on the Internet.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The component of a computer in which data processing takes place.
Channel: The smallest subdivision of a circuit, usually with a path in only one direction.
Codec (COder/DECoder): Device used to convert analog signals to digital signals for transmission and reconvert signals upon reception at the remote site while allowing for the signal to be compressed for less expensive transmission.
Compressed Video: When video signals are downsized to allow travel along a smaller carrier.
Compression: Reducing the amount of visual information sent in a signal by only transmitting changes in action.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): Teaching process in which a computer is utilized to enhance the learning environment by assisting students in gaining mastery over a specific skill.
Cyberspace: The nebulous “place” where humans interact over computer networks. Coined by William Gibson in Neuromancer.
Desktop Videoconferencing: Videoconferencing on a personal computer.
Dial-Up Teleconference: Using public telephone lines for communications links among various locations.
Digital: An electrical signal that varies in discrete steps in voltage, frequency, amplitude, locations, etc.. Digital signals can be transmitted faster and more accurately than analog signals.
Digital Video Interactive (DVI): A format for recording digital video onto compact disc allowing for compression and full motion video.
Distance Education: The process of providing instruction when students and instructors are separated by physical distance and technology, often in tandem with face-to-face communication, is used to bridge the gap.
Distance Learning: The desired outcome of distance education.
Download: Using the network to transfer files from one computer to another.
Echo Cancellation: The process of eliminating the acoustic echo in a videoconferencing room.
Electronic Mail (E-mail): Sending messages from one computer user to another.
Facsimile (FAX): System used to transmit textual or graphical images over standard telephone lines.
Fiber Optic Cable: Glass fiber that is used for laser transmission of video, audio, and/or data.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol that allows you to move files from a distant computer to a local computer using a network like the Internet.
Frequency: The space between waves in a signal. The amount of time between waves passing a stationary point.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ): A collection of information on the basics of any given subject, often used on the WWW.
Full Motion Video: Signal which allows transmission of complete action taking place at the origination site.
Fully Interactive Video: (Two way interactive video) Two sites interact with audio and video as if they were co-located.
Home Page: A document with an address (URL) on the world wide web maintained by a person or organization which contains pointers to other pieces of information.
Host: A network computer that can receive information from other computers.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): The code used to create a home page and is used to access documents over the WWW.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The protocol used to signify an Internet site is a WWW site, i.e. HTTP is a WWW address.
Hypertext: A document which has been marked up to allow a user to select words or pictures within the document, click on them, and connect to further information.
Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS): Microwave-based, high-frequency television used in educational program delivery.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): A telecommunications standard allowing communications channels to carry voice, video, and data simultaneously.
Interactive Media: Frequency assignment that allows for a two-way interaction or exchange of information.
Listserv: An e-mail program that allows multiple computer users to connect onto a single system, creating an online discussion.
Local Area Network (LAN): Two or more local computers that are physically connected.
Microwave: Electromagnetic waves that travel in a straight line and are used to and from satellites and for short distances (i.e., up to 30 miles).
Modem: A piece of equipment to allow computers to interact with each other via telephone lines by converting digital signals to analog for transmission along analog lines.
Mosaic: An example of browser software that allows WWW use.
Multimedia: Any document which uses multiple forms of communication, such as text, audio, and/or video.
Multi-Point Control Unit (MCU): Computerized switching system which allows point-to-multipoint videoconferencing.
Netscape: An example of browser software that allows you to design a home page and to browse links on the WWW.
Network: A series of points connected by communication channels in different locations.
online: Active and prepared for operation. Also suggests access to a computer network.
Origination Site: The location from which a teleconference originates.
Point of Presence (POP): Point of connection between an interexchange carrier and a local carrier to pass communications into the network.
Point-to-Point: Transmission between two locations.
Point-to-Multipoint: Transmission between multiple locations using a bridge.
PPP: A software package which allows a user to have a direct connection to the Internet over a telephone line.
Protocol: A formal set of standards, rules, or formats for exchanging data that assures uniformity between computers and applications.
Satellite TV: Video and audio signals are relayed via a communication device that orbits around the earth.
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP): Allows a user to connect to the Internet directly over a high speed modem.
Server: A computer with a special service function on a network, generally receiving and connecting incoming information traffic.
Slow Scan Converter: Transmitter/receiver of still video over narrow band channels. In real time, camera subjects must remain still for highest resolution.
Synchronous: Communication in which interaction between participants is simultaneous.
T-1 (DS-1): High speed digital data channel that is a high volume carrier of voice and/or data. Often used for compressed video teleconferencing. T-1 has 24 voice channels.
T-3 (DS-3): A digital channel which communicates at a significantly faster rate than T-1.
Telecommunication: The science of information transport using wire, radio, optical, or electromagnetic channels to transmit receive signals for voice or data communications using electrical means.
Teleconferencing: Two way electronic communication between two or more groups in separate locations via audio, video, and/or computer systems.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A protocol which makes sure that packets of data are shipped and received in the intended order.
Transponder: Satellite transmitter and receiver that receives and amplifies a signal prior to re-transmission to an earth station.
Video Teleconferencing: A teleconference including two way video.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The address of a homepage on the WWW.
Uplink: The communication link from the transmitting earth station to the satellite.
World Wide Web (WWW): A graphical hypertext-based Internet tool that provides access to homepages created by individuals, businesses, and other organizations.
Note
The following resources were reviewed and consulted in the preparation of this publication:
Glossary: http://152.30.11.86/DEER/Houghton/Committees/distancelearn/GlossaryDistEd.html
Glossary of Terms. http://www.ctcnet.com/tips/ glossary.htm
Reed, J. (1996) Videoconferencing for learning glossary. http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/vidconf/glossary.html
The EdWeb Dictionary. http://k12.cnidr.org:90/dic.html
Willis, B. (Ed.) (1994). Distance education: Strategies and tools. Educational Technology Publications, Inc.: Englewood Cliffs, N. J.