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Hypnosis
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Professor Charcot was well-known for showing, during his lessons at theSalpêtrière hospital, "hysterical" woman patients – here, his favorite patient, "Blanche" (Marie) Wittman, supported byJoseph Babiński. The neurologist endorsed hypnosis for the treatment of hysteria.
Hypnosis is a process in which critical thinking faculties ofthe mind are bypassed and a type of selective thinking and perceptionis established. Although some individuals experience an increase insuggestibility and subjective feelings of analtered state of consciousness,this is not true for everyone. In fact, some supposed hypnoticindicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation ora lengthy induction by means of simplesuggestion or waking hypnosis, a fact that increases the controversy and misunderstandings around hypnosis and the hypnotic state.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Theories of hypnosis2.1 Alpha- and theta-state theories
2.2 Social constructionism and role-playing theory
2.3 Dissociation and neodissociation theories
2.4 Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis
2.5 Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep
2.6 Hyper–suggestibility theory
2.7 Informational theory
2.8 Systems theory
3 Views on theoretical debate
4 Research on hypnosis4.1 Clinical studies
4.2 Brain imaging
5 Hypnosis methodologies and effects5.1 General methods5.1.1 Common hypnosis phases
5.2 General effects5.2.1 Focused attention
5.2.2 Suggestibility
5.3 Clinical observations of various depths of hypnosis5.3.1 Breuer‘s absent pupillary reflex sign
6 Hypnosis applications6.1 Hypnotherapy
6.2 Clinical hypnosis
6.3 Medical and dental application
6.4 Educational applications
6.5 Hypnodermatology
6.6 Entertainment and stage application
6.7 Self-hypnosis
6.8 Walking hypnosis
6.9 Waking hypnosis
6.10 Mass application
6.11 Indirect application
6.12 Post-hypnotic suggestion
6.13 Other uses6.13.1 Nonclinical Applications of Hypnotism
7 Possible dangers of hypnosis7.1 Extreme reactions
7.2 False memory
8 Popular culture8.1 Popular misconceptions8.1.1 Control
8.1.2 Hypnosis is caused by the hypnotist‘s power
8.1.3 One is unconscious and unaware in hypnosis
8.1.4 Weak-mindedness
8.1.5 Overactive imagination
8.2 Hypnosis in popular media
9 National Occupational Standards9.1 UK
9.2 U.S.A.
9.3 India
10 References
11 See also
12 External links
[edit] History
Main article:History of hypnosis
Hypnosis is a controversial topic, as many researchers think thatthere is really no such thing. There is some history dating back atleast to the 1700s of the use of mentalism and other methods some ofwhich are now labelled as ‘hypnosis‘. The first recognizablepractitioner of hypnosis wasFranz Anton Mesmer, anAustrian physician of the18th-centurywho attempted to use the power of suggestion to cure illnesses. He waseventually discredited but his followers continued to "mesmerize"people with his techniques. The term hypnosis came from a Scottishphysician,James Braid, who used theGreek word forsleep to create the term. Braid thought hypnosis could be used as a surgicalanesthetic. Modern research however indicates that in these cases, the ability of each individual patient to mentally reducepainor focus on the imagination as a tool for pain relief is how theprocess actually occurs, and that the concept of ‘hypnosis‘ ismisleading. There is as such a great deal of controversy about whetherthere is any such thing as hypnosis. Many of the effects produced by‘hypnosis‘ have several alternate theories to describe theiroccurrence. Since the use of the term ‘hypnosis‘ many of its‘practitioners‘ have been subject to much research, criticism,curiosity andmyths.
[edit] Theories of hypnosis
Sometheoriesof hypnosis attempt to describe hypnotic phenomena in terms of brainactivity while others concentrate more on the phenomenologicalexperience. In either case, a fundamental distinction is between"state" and "non-state" theories of hypnosis. State theorists believethat analtered state of consciousnessis a core part of hypnosis, whereas non-state theorists believe thatmore mundane psychological processes such as focused attention andexpectation are sufficient to explain hypnotic phenomena. The precisedefinition of what constitutes an altered state of consciousness is amatter of some debate. Although many people who are hypnotized describetheir experience as "altered" it is difficult to use these terms in theabsence of a prior definition.
TheAmerican Psychological Association remains neutral in the argument between "state" and "non-state" theorists. However, this controversy may soon be resolved, asmodern brain-imaging techniquesoffer hope for an increased understanding of the science behindhypnosis, and as the value of both perspectives is increasinglyrecognized.
The following theories have been presented from highly regarded individuals/groups.
[edit] Alpha- and theta-state theories
Through data collected byelectroencephalography (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns—frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain—have been identified. The beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14–32 Hz, the alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) as the 7–14 Hz, the theta state (drowsy) as 4–7 Hz, and the delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) as approximately 3–5 Hz.[1]
One physiological definition of hypnosis states that the brainwavelevel necessary to work on issues such as stopping smoking, managingweight, reducing phobias, improving athletic performance, etc., is thealpha state. The alpha state is commonly associated with closing one‘seyes, relaxation, and daydreaming.[1]
Another physiological definition states that the theta state isrequired for therapeutic change. The theta state is associated withhypnosis forsurgery,hypnoanesthesia (the use of hypnosis to numb sensation of pain), andhypnoanalgesia (the use of hypnosis to decrease sensitivity to pain),which occur more readily in the theta and delta states. Anesthetics,sedatives and hypnotics disrupt neuronal synchrony, thought to underlietheta waves, in both humans and animals, as well as in simple neuronalcircuits.[2] It should be noted that hypnoanalgesia of the skin is a common test forsomnambulism. Arm and bodycatalepsy are one of a few tests done to determine readiness for these surgical applications.[citation needed]
However, it is important to reflect upon the fact that both arm and bodycatalepsycan be induced in normal non-hypnotized subjects. Indeed, arm catalepsyis a standard stage-hypnotist‘s test of susceptibility. Moreover,normal, non-hypnotized subjects can be found in any of these states ofcortical arousal without also displaying any of the behavior, traits orthe enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotized.
[edit] Social constructionism and role-playing theory
This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and thatreally there is no such thing as hypnosis. A relationship is builtdepending on how muchrapport has been established between the "hypnotist" and the subject (seeHawthorne effect,Pygmalion effect, and thePlacebo effect).[3]
Generally, during the communication process people can become morereceptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think,and behave. Some psychologists such asRobert Bakerclaim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of learned socialbehavior, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, andsuggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioralmanifestations.[4] Psychologists, such asSarbin andSpanos,have suggested that strong social expectations are played out bysubjects, who believe they are in a state of "hypnosis", behaving in away that they imagine a "hypnotized" person would behave.
Nicholas Spanos states "hypnotic procedures influence behavior indirectly by altering subjects‘ motivations, expectations and interpretations"[5]and hypothesized that the behaviors associated with hypnosis are actedout knowingly by the person. He alleged that there are two reasons thatcause people to misconstrue their state of consciousness as hypnosis.One of the reasons being that people believe that their behavior iscaused by an external source instead of the self. The second is relatedto the way hypnotic rituals are performed. The hypnotist says certainthings which are first interpreted as voluntary and then later on inthe procedure as involuntary. An example being "relax the muscles inyour legs" and then later "your legs feel limp and heavy".
Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences ofsupposedly hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped byexpectations and social nuances. In short, individuals are choosing toact out a role and experiencing effects based on their expectations andsubtle methods of communication, the mechanism by which these takeplace have in part been socially constructed and are not based on theidea of an altered state of consciousness.
[edit] Dissociation and neodissociation theories
Pierre Janet originally developed the idea ofdissociationof consciousness, as a result of his work with hysterical patients. Hebelieved that hypnosis was an example of dissociation: areas of anindividual‘s behavioral control are split off from ordinary awareness.In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the consciousmind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexivebehavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as"dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and evenstrictly neural events taking place."[6]
[edit] Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis
Neuropsychological theories of hypnosis attempt to explain hypnoticphenomena in terms of alterations in brain activity. Gruzelier, basedon large amounts of EEG research, proposed that hypnosis ischaracterized by a shift in brain activity from anterior (front) toposterior (back).[citation needed]
[edit] Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep
Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". Heobserved that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantlydiffer physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended oninsignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggestedthat lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.[7]
Some modern well-known hypnotherapists subscribe to this theory,since in hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep becauseof eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure.However, there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure,reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosismore closely resembles complete wakefulness.[citation needed]
[edit] Hyper–suggestibility theory
Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject focusesattention by responding to the suggestion of the hypnotist. Asattention is focused and magnified, the hypnotist‘s words are graduallyaccepted without the subject carrying any conscious censorship of whatis being said. This is not unlike the athlete listening to the lastpieces of advice from a coach minutes before an important sport event:Concentration filters out anything that is unimportant and magnifieswhat is said about what really matters for the subject.[3]
[edit] Informational theory
This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. Inelectronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increasethe signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a "steadystate". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages tobe more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying toreduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the objectof the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference andincrease the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).[3]
[edit] Systems theory
This theory may be regarded as an extension ofJames Braid‘s original conceptualization of hypnosis[8]as involving a process of greatly enhancing or depressing the activityof the nervous system. It takes and establishes the necessaryorganization of the nervous system into interacting subsystems. On thatbasis it develops a picture of hypnotic phenomena as involving not onlyincreasing or decreasing of the activity of particular subsystems, buton their interaction. As a result it brings into centre stage thephenomenon of feed-back loops, familiar in systems theory, and therebythrows light on a mechanism for creating the more extreme of hypnoticphenomena.[9][10]
[edit] Views on theoretical debate

Theneutrality of this article isdisputed.
Please see the discussion on thetalk page.
Though various myths have been spread by unfounded conjecture abouthypnosis, the field has received significant support from thescience-oriented psychology community due to the rigorous research ofhypnotic phenomena conducted by some practitioners and theorists (Sala1999). Heap and Dryden (1991:17) considers the theoretical debates onhypnotherapy to have been productive and that hypnosis has benefitedfrom the attentions of those involved in the controversies - people ofcalibre and intellectual integrity. Heap and Dryden also state that, incontrast, hypnotherapy from the 18th century andanimal magnetism down to the new age therapies of the neo-Ericksonians have been characterized by gullibility and fraudulence.
Ambrose and Newbold (1980) consider the theoretical debatesurrounding hypnosis theories to have been productive, especially inrelation to distinguishing evidence based research from conjecture.
[edit] Research on hypnosis
While one of the first scientifically controlled studies, as opposed to clinical studies, was done by Dr.Robert W. Habbick ofSyracuse University as recently as1968,there is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis clinicalresearch which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate.Much clinical research has been conducted into the nature and effectsof hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (ifsomewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. Anumber of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: thatwhich examines the state of hypnosis itself, that which examines theeffects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and thatwhich uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas ofpsychological functioning.
Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool forpainrelief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutictechniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it iseffective forweight loss,irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),anxiety conditions and many more).[citation needed]
Recently, there are reports that efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination withcognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) may be effective.[11]
[edit] Clinical studies
In 1996, the National Institutes of Health technology assessmentpanel judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviatingpain from cancer and other chronic conditions. A large number ofclinical studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute painexperienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, enduringbone marrow aspirations and childbirth. An analysis published in arecent issue of the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis,for example, found that hypnotic suggestions relieved the pain of 75%of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments.[12]
[edit] Brain imaging
With the recent advent of new brain imaging techniques (chieflymagnetic resonance imaging [MRI], with EEG andpositron emission tomography[PET] contributing to a lesser extent) there has been a resurgence ofinterest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Anyhuman experience is reflected in some way in the brain – seeing colorsor motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fearis mediated by activity in the amygdala – and so hypnosis andsuggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function.An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is toseparate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion — knowing that asuggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not justtell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestiontoo. To account for this, experiments need to include anon-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition —only this way can thespecific effects of hypnosis be examined.
A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted on hypnotizedsubjects. A selection of these studies are explained and summarizedbelow:
One controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis mayalter our perception of conscious experience in a way not possible whenpeople are not "hypnotized", at least in "highly hypnotizable" people.In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in "highlyhypnotizable" people as determined by (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al.,2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on lesshypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect dueto the lack of a control group.)
Another research example, employing event-relatedfunctional MRI (fMRI) and EEG coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity "...duringStroop taskperformance between participants of low and high hypnoticsusceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction". According toits authors, "the fMRI data revealed that conflict-relatedACCactivity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in thathighly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-relatedneural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as wellas with respect to subjects with low susceptibility." (Egner et al.,2005)
Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming thatsuch changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized state,and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alterbrain activity in some manner. However, recent studies have shown thathypnotized subjects suggested to experience auditory hallucinationsdemonstrated via PET scans, regional blood flow in the same areas ofthe brain as real hearing, whereas in subjects merely engaged invividly imagining hearing noises, this did not occur.[12] The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.
[edit] Hypnosis methodologies and effects
[edit] General methods
The act of inducing hypnosis is referred to as an inductionprocedure. Currently, there is no consensus among practitioners orresearchers for which method is the most effective induction procedure.Many associate hypnotic induction with a swinging pendulum, but thereare many usable techniques. Most commonly the hypnotist will usecalming techniques designed to relax the subject by suggesting thattheir limbs are going limp, eyelids are getting heavy, etc. Relaxationis not a key factor, however, as hypnosis can be induced duringvigorous exercise.
Hypnotic susceptibilty is a measureable amount of responsivenessthat one can have to hypnosis. Not all people can be hypnotized, butabout 10% of people respond exceptionally well.[13]There is little evidence linking susceptibilty to intelligence orpersonality traits, but there is a certain amount of research linkinghypnosis to the amount of absorption and imagination in subjects.Recent research suggests that highly hypnotizable people have highsensory and perceptual gating abilities that allow them to block somestimuli from awareness (Barnier, McConkey, and Wright, 2004).
There is a common claim that no one can be hypnotized against his will.[14]The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannotmake someone do anything against his will, you can change what it isthat he wishes to do. This lowering in inhibitions is calleddisinhibition and can sometimes be found in the hypnotized subject andleads him to performing acts that he would normally consider sociallyunacceptable or simply would not do otherwise.
New research, developed by Gerald Kein, Board Certified Hypnotist,has claimed that everybody is equally hypnotizable. The rule is simply"people accept hypnosis in direct relationship to the amount of fearthey have." Successful hypnosis is attained by the removal of anyinhibitory fear. With fear removed, most individuals can be deeplyhypnotized in 5-10 seconds. Licensed mental health professionals aregenerally not trained in these techniques and use the old progressiverelaxation hypnotic induction developed in the 1940s (Kein, 1985).
[edit] Common hypnosis phases
From"How to Create a Self Hypnosis Recording". wikiHow. Retrieved on2007-05-09.
Preparation
The first phase typically involves having the subject sit or lie down and getting comfortable.
Induction
Induction takes the subject from normal awareness to a state of enhanced relaxation.
Deepening
The deepening phase takes the subject from a very relaxed state into the fully "hypnotized" state, where conscious thinking is minimized.
Purpose
If the purpose of the hypnosis session is amusement, then this phase is when the subjects are asked to say or perform things that will entertain the audience. If the purpose is a therapeutic effect, this is when the subject is encouraged to see themselves as what they want to become, such as a non-smoker. If negative reinforcement is used, then this is when the subject is told that they will feel ill, or something similar, when the subject engages in the activity that they want to stop.
Awakening
The awakening phase is when the subject is taken out of the hypnotic state. If the session is to try to alleviate insomnia, then the subject is encouraged to sleep, otherwise the subject is brought back to a state of awareness with the conscious mind fully reengaged.
[edit] General effects
[edit] Focused attention
Some schools of thought hold that hypnosis as a state is verysimilar to other states of extreme concentration, where a personbecomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought.Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds his orher self much further down the road without any memory of driving theintervening distance (seehighway hypnosis),when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on theprogram that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen,or when a person is thinking about another subject while reading, thenrealizes that he or she has read several pages without consciouslydoing so, or taking in any of the content.
According to state theorists, the act of hypnotizing, is, in effect,the act of deliberately and mechanically inducing a similar state.[15]
[edit] Suggestibility

Theneutrality of this section isdisputed.
Please see the discussion on thetalk page.
Somepsychologistshave developed studies that show a correlation between the effectspeople display when acting as "hypnotized" and their level ofsuggestibility. Some of these studies involve theHarvard scale, andStanford scale.
Hypnosis has been described as "suspension of the critical factor"which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person whoclaims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or shewould normally reject. However, this still does not show the validityof hypnosis as a real state, as subjects carrying out role playingwould likewise answer seemingly illogically if convinced that was theparadigm.
It often appears as if the "hypnotized" participant accepts theauthority of the "hypnotist" over his or her own experience. When askedafter the conclusion of such a session, some participants claim to begenuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they hadknown the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier justto go along with his instructions. (Richard Feynman describes this, in his memoirSurely You‘re Joking, Mr. Feynman!,as his own hypnotic experience.) The mechanism of this effect is,however, disputed. Some hypnotists would claim that this showed thedifference between a deep and a shallow hypnotictrance,while skeptics would cite that such effects can be duplicated in othercircumstances where an agent holds authority, such as theMilgram experiment.Because of the ability to achieve these effects through normalvarieties of communication and circumstance, there is no scientifictheory that supports the existence of hypnosis.
[edit] Clinical observations of various depths of hypnosis
[edit] Breuer‘s absent pupillary reflex sign
An objective sign of hypnosis can be observed by a pupillary reflextest, which demonstrates a response that is opposed to the normalphysiological response. When subjects are in a profound hypnotic state,they are asked to remain in hypnosis and open their eyes. The subjects‘pupils are usually dilated and remain dilated or react poorly when apenlight is shone into them—the normal non-hypnotic response is acontraction of the pupil.
The esoteric publication Hypnotism, by Danish hypnotist CarlSeptus, is an early reference work that notes the absent pupillaryreflex sign. More specifically, it states that after subjects have beenasked to open their eyes during a deep trance, light shone into theeyes does not cause pupil contraction. The hypnotist may use suggestionto keep the subject in hypnosis, but the hypnotist must avoidsuggestions relating to eyes, visual focus, light, and the pupils‘dilation or contraction.[16]
[edit] Hypnosis applications
[edit] Hypnotherapy
Main article:Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapyis a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context.Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work".Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensedphysicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-aloneenvironment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his orher own business. The majority of these stand-alone certifiedhypnotherapists (C.Hts in the U.S., Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earna large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (oftenin a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting).Psychologists and psychiatrists use hypnosis predominantly for thetreatment of dissociative disorders, phobias, habit change, depressionand post-traumatic syndromes.[17]There is no evidence that ‘incurable‘ diseases are curable withhypnosis (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis), but pain and otherbody functions related to the diseases are controllable.[18][19][20][21] Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-calledregression, have been viewed with skepticism.[22]
TheAmerican Medical Association and theAmerican Psychological Associationhave both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy indealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it isimpossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a truememory from a false one",[23] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".[24] (See alsofalse memory).This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many countries‘legal systems. However, hypnosis therapy is frequently used by thepublic and there is no shortage of testimonial evidence of itshelpfulness.
[edit] Clinical hypnosis
TheAmerican Society of Clinical Hypnosis&British Society of Clinical Hypnosisare organizations that attempt to promote the use of hypnosis to treata wider variety of physical and psychological ailments. The Americansociety was founded byMilton Erickson, who opposed to unlicensed professionals performing therapeutic hypnosis.
[edit] Medical and dental application
One of the major initial applications of hypnosis was thesuppression of pain during medical procedures. This was supplanted (inthe late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemicalanesthetics.
The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing withhypnodontia– the use of hypnosis in dentistry – has attested to the increasingsophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the special problemsof the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by wayof its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can increase overallpatient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable,decrease resistance to future intervention, and through posthypnoticsuggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.
[edit] Educational applications
In a lecture to the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (ASCH)during their annual conference at the State University Of New York, Dr.Milton Erickson taught the process of indirect hypnosis while Dr.Robert W. Habbick spoke of his research on the use of hypnosis inenhancing learning and reducing anxiety. Dr. Habbick explained the useof a triad of suggestions: "(a) enhancing confidence, while (b)strengthening focused interest in the work and (c) improving energy todo the studying necessary." The results of his controlled researchpointed the way toward the need to apply hypnosis especially withstudents having trouble studying. In a more recent lecture, Dr. Habbickspoke in Boston to ASCH of the positive effects of using his suggestedhypnosis triad with students at the Bureau of Study Council at HarvardUniversity.
[edit] Hypnodermatology
Main article:Hypnodermatology
Hypnodermatology is the practice of treating skin diseases with hypnosis.
[edit] Entertainment and stage application
This article or section may containoriginal research orunverified claims.
Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See thetalk page for details.
Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of theUniversity of Liverpool,carried out research around the phenomenon of stage hypnosis orhypnosis for entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subjectbeing in an "altered state" rather they were affected significantlymore by social factors and expectations.[25]
Wagstaff‘s work explores how a hypnotist will carefully choosevolunteers from the audience, put them into a trance using hypnosis,and then plant suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor inany stage hypnosis show is the choice of enthusiastic and credulousindividuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether anindividual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act, showing ahigher than normal susceptibility. Often, the sheer willingness ofaudience members to volunteer is a sign that they will cooperate withthe hypnotist‘s suggestions during the show whether or not theyactually become hypnotized in the first place.[25]
The process used to ensure participants presenting themselves asadequate for the stage starts with the initial call for volunteers fromthe audience. The hypnotist will use carefully selected terms in theinitial call for volunteers. There will be a certain number of chairs,or spots on the stage which will usually be less than the number ofinitial volunteers. This will set up an unconscious sense ofcompetition among those volunteers who really do want to participate.
For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk,aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked,six year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions aredesigned to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stagehypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves real people fromthe audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows thesame. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree offraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.
Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an "induction" in which thehypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen tohis words. He lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state withwhich he may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often,people are simply unable to relax and go with the hypnotist‘sinstructions due to an inability to relax and allow their minds tofollow instructions without conscious thought or simply determinationto not be induced.
There are many behaviours that can be observed of those who "gounder", such as slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side,falling into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, andan inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by thehypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show andseeing the person next to them become induced, it can be frightening towitness.
The people whom the hypnotist saw to be easily induced the deepestare approached individually. He will speak briefly to the person andlearn their name at which time he may say a few words to them andcommand them to sleep. For example: "Are you tired, Jane? Would youlike to sleep now? Go ahead - sleep." Normally this action willcause the individual to immediately appear to have fallen asleep,accompanied by the individual falling to the side. The hypnotist willthen speak once more to the person and in the same manner command theperson to wake. If this person seems to have been deeply hypnotized butcan also wake easily seems unaware of what happened, he or she will beasked to go on the stage.
Once several people are assembled, the hypnotist will begin withinducing each of them and testing them to make sure they are perfectlyunder. If someone is not working well enough they may be asked toleave. Those who remain are the ones who cannot be woken, even by loudaudiences and shouts. They only respond to the hypnotist. He will beginwith small commands for action and move up to grand requests. Forexample, the subjects may first be told to act as if they were cold ina relatively warm room, and by the end of the night, they are showingthe audience what their first kisses were like.
[edit] Self-hypnosis
Main article:Autosuggestion
Self-hypnosis (orautosuggestion)-- hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself or herself without theassistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist — is a staple ofhypnotherapy-relatedself-help programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on adiet, overcomesmoking or some otheraddiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person‘sself-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex orcontroversialuses of hypnosis, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotizedperson‘s reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most peoplewho practice self-hypnosis require a focus in order to become fullyhypnotized; there are manycomputer programs on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any, have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis.
Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go intoself-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses withdifferent colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDsstimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the audiochannel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed toproduce a certain mental state. A common occurrence is the use ofbinaural beats in the audio which is said to produce hypnosis more readily.
[edit] Walking hypnosis
Also known as environmental hypnosis, this, as defined by HypnosisOnline, is a naturally occurring trance that one can enter whilstperforming a monotonous repetetive task, such as walking or gardening,or in sedentary pursuits such as listening to a lecture or reading, inwhich one‘s attention drifts from the task into a trance-like state,often known as "zoning out". This natural reaction to boredom is oftenharnessed by athletes to render them oblivious to distractions,especially physical symptoms of pain and fatigue, and the state isknown in this context as being "in the zone".
Individuals can be trained in how to enter this waking hypnosisstate. Many students learn how to use waking hypnosis in theirclassrooms so that all the information they receive is permanentlyembedded in their subconscious mind and can be accessed wheneverneeded. A competent nonlicensed hypnotist can easily teach thesetechniques to anyone,
[edit] Waking hypnosis
This phenomenon, as expounded byMelvin Powers in1955, involves altering the behaviour of a subject by suggestion without inducing a trance. Related to theplacebo effect,a subject becomes subconsciously convinced that what they are beingtold is inevitable reality, for example that the air in the room willcause them to swallow. They can be convinced that a completely benignsubstance is actually a drug that will induce whatever effect issuggested. In order to work, the subject must completely trust thesource of the suggestion or be subconsciously convinced by a calmauthoritative tone.
[edit] Mass application
Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by ademagogueis called mass hypnosis. Generally, mass hypnosis is applied toreligious sessions. Many forms of music and dance can be used to createreligious trance.[26]
[edit] Indirect application
In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment ofconditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application,wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some peopleseem more able to display "enhanced functioning", such as thesuppression of pain, while utilizing hypnosis.
[edit] Post-hypnotic suggestion
Robin Waterfield writes, in his 2002 book Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis,"a person can act, some time later, on a suggestion seeded during thehypnotic session. Post-hypnotic suggestions can last for a long time. Ahypnotherapist told one of his patients, who was also a friend: ‘When Itouch you on the finger you will immediately be hypnotized.‘ Fourteenyears later, at a dinner party, he touched him deliberately on thefinger and his head fell back against the chair."[27]
[edit] Other uses
Michael R. Nash writes, in a 2001 article for Scientific Americantitled "The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis", "using hypnosis,scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions,certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in thelaboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlledenvironment."[12]
[edit] Nonclinical Applications of Hypnotism
Hypnotism has also received publicity about its use inForensics,Sports,Education, andphysical therapy andrehabilitation.[28]
[edit] Possible dangers of hypnosis
Pratt et al write, in their 1988 book A Clinical Hypnosis Primer,"A hypnotized patient will respond to a suggestion literally. Asuggestion that requires conscious interpretation can have undersirableeffects." They give the following report taken from Hartland, 1971,p.37: "A patient who was terrified to go into the street because of thetraffic was once told by a hypnotist that when she left his room, shewould no longer bother about the traffic and would be able to cross theroad without the slightest fear. She obeyed his instructions soliterally that she ended up in a hospital."[29]
They also mention:
From Kleinhauz and Beran, 1984:
"In one case, a woman had experienced 10 years of fatigue,irritability, and periods of childish behavior during which herperceptions were distorted. The source of the problem was traced backto a stage performance 10 years earlier, when she was regressed to atraumatic period of her life."
From Kleinhauz and Eli, 1987:
"In one case, a dentist using hypnorelaxation with a patientcomplied with her request to provide direction suggestions to stopsmoking. The patient‘s underlying psychological conflicts, which thedentist was not qualified to assess, led to the development of ananxiety/depressive reaction."
From Machovec, 1987:
"A woman undergoing psychotherapy facilitated by hypnosis attemptedto use the procedures she had learned to relieve her husband‘s dentalpain. During the deepening technique of arm levitation, her husband‘sfingertips ‘stuck‘ to his head, and a therapist had to intervene to endthe trance state."[30]
[edit] Extreme reactions
Licensed hypnotherapists[attribution needed]have expressed concerns that practitioners of hypnosis who areunlicensed can evoke intense emotions in clients that they are nottrained to treat. These abreactions can occur recalling traumaticevents.
[edit] False memory
False memory obtained via hypnosis has figured prominently in many investigations and court cases, including cases of allegedsexual abuse. There is no scientific way to prove that any of these recollections are completely accurate.
Many individuals can and have been led by an errant hypnotist tobelieve in things that they later were able to show did not happen haveretracted allegations of such abuse (for instance,[2]).
TheAmerican Medical Association and theAmerican Psychological Associationhave both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy indealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it isimpossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a truememory from a false one",[23] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".[24] (See alsofalse memory).
[edit] Popular culture
The notion of hypnosis has elicited many presentations in popularculture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible tocommands outside their conscious control can be an effective way ofrepresenting the notion of the fallible narrator. Due to the nature ofbelief in hypnosis, it‘s possible that popular beliefs regardinghypnosis actually influence the experience, reinforcing the beliefs.
[edit] Popular misconceptions
Many works of fiction, such as movies, television programs, and comic books portray hypnosis as a form of totalmind control. Most authorities, however, agree that this is an exaggeration.[citation needed]Portrayals in these forms of media foster a number of popularmisconceptions are often taken to be true by the public at large,adding to the controversy surrounding hypnosis.
[edit] Control
Some believe that hypnosis is a form ofmind control and/orbrainwashingthat can control a person‘s behavior and judgment and therefore couldpotentially cause them harm. These beliefs are not generally based onscientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whethermind control even exists. But there are people interested in researchand funding to help work on controlling others and perfecting mindcontrol techniques. These techniques can be researched with thescientific method and reasoning skills.[31][32]
[edit] Hypnosis is caused by the hypnotist‘s power
Due to the stage hypnotist‘s showmanship and their perpetuatedillusion of possessing mysterious abilities, hypnosis is often seen ascaused by the hypnotist‘s power. The reality is the hypnotist has nopower other than to offer suggestions which the subject or client maychoose to respond to or not to respond to. But some people are able tohypnotise just within seconds while others take a lot of time.[33]
[edit] One is unconscious and unaware in hypnosis
While the word hypnosis is derived from the Greek word for sleep, and many hypnotists still use the language of sleep and awake, hypnosis is not sleep.
From the mental standpoint, a hypnotic subject is relaxed yet alertand always aware at some level. Some choose to think of this as a stateof mind called "trance".[33]
[edit] Weak-mindedness
Due to the popular but incorrect notion of hypnosis asmind control,some people believe that the ability to experience hypnosis is relatedto strength and soundness of mind. However, scientists note thatpersonality traits such as gullibility or submissiveness or factorssuch as low intelligence are not related to hypnotize-ability. Researchstudies suggest neither intelligence, sex, nor personality traitsaffect responsiveness to hypnosis and that hypnotize-ability may infact be hereditary or genetic in nature.[12]
[edit] Overactive imagination
Another misconception in popular culture is that hypnosis is oftenthe product of vivid imaginations and that hypnotic phenomena is merelyimagined in the mind. However, research indicates many imaginativepeople do not fare well as good hypnotic subjects. Furthermore, studiesusingPETscans have shown that hypnotized subjects suggested to have auditoryhallucinations demonstrated regional blood flow in the same areas ofthe brain as real hearing, whereas subjects merely imagining hearingnoise did not.[12]
[edit] Hypnosis in popular media
Popular magician/mentalist "The Amazing Kreskin" disputes the validity of hypnosis and once offered $100,000 to anyone who can prove such a thing as a "hypnotic trance" exists to his satisfaction.[34]
TheShowtime Network television showPenn & Teller: Bullshit!, which features comedy duoPenn & Teller, took a skeptical look at hypnosis in one of their episodes. They took the view that the so-called hypnotic trance does not exist at all, and that all hypnosis sessions are merely voluntary shared fantasies. Penn and Teller also state that the unusual behaviors people exhibit during a hypnosis session have always been well within their reach.
Paramount syndicated television showThe Montel Williams Show, featured a presentation byHypnotist The Incredible BORIS where hypnotized subjects reacted to a variety of comical situations, while at the same time showcasing the therapeutic effects of hypnosis such as quitting smoking.[35]
The British car showTop Gear featured one of the presenters,Richard Hammond, getting hypnotized. Once hypnotized, he manifested a number of personality and mental changes, including not remembering how to drive a car, and thinking that a miniature child‘s version of aPorsche 911 was his own car, and attempting to drive it around in the studio.
An episode ofMythbusters dealt with hypnosis, attempting to ascertain ifpost-hypnotic suggestion could influence the actions of a subject against their will and or be used to improvememory.
Several songs are named after hypnosis. These include "Hypnotized" byFleetwood Mac, "Hypnotize" bySystem of a Down,The Notorious B.I.G, andThe White Stripes, "Mass Hypnosis" bySepultura, "Hypnotized" byHeathen and also "Are You A Hypnotist??" byThe Flaming Lips.
In the popular animated showFuturama, a recurring character is theHypnotoad. He is first seen having hypnotized the judges of a dog show, enabling him to win. In a later episode, he is shown to have his own popular television show, "Everybody Loves Hypnotoad".
In the long running BBC science-fiction seriesDoctor Who, the recurringTime Lord villainthe Master will sometimes use hypnosis to bring subjects under his control. This is usually achieved by him staring the victim in the eyes and saying, "I am the Master and you will obey me!". In the 1985 storyThe Mark of the Rani, the Master uses a pendulum to hypnotize a victim.
[edit] National Occupational Standards
[edit] UK
In 2002 UK Department for Education and Skills developed The National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy based onNational Qualifications Frameworkand started conferring optional certificates and diplomas ininternational level through National Awarding Bodies by assessinglearning outcomes of training /accrediting prior experiential learning.
[edit] U.S.A.
The U.S. (Department of Labor) Directory of Occupational Titles (D.O.T. 079.157.010) supplies the following definition:
"Hypnotherapist -- Induces hypnotic state in client toincrease motivation or alter behavior pattern through hypnosis.Consults with client to determine the nature of problem. Preparesclient to enter hypnotic states by explaining how hypnosis works andwhat client will experience. Tests subject to determine degrees ofphysical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in clientusing individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based oninterpretation of test results and analysis of client‘s problem. Maytrain client in self-hypnosis conditioning.
[edit] India
TheIndianMinistry of Health & Family Welfare stated that hypnotherapy is arecognized mode of therapy to be practiced by only appropriatelytrained individuals.
[edit] References
^ab"States of Consciousness: States of Sleep" Psychology 101 Julie Earles, Leslie McDonald, Elizabeth Dietrich, and Gilles Einstein. Retrieved on2007-01-22.
^http://web.archive.org/web/20050210004925/http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/Theta.html
^abc Kroger, William S. (1977) Clinical and experimental hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology Lippincott, Philadelphia,ISBN 0-397-50377-6
^ Baker, Robert A. (1990) They Call It Hypnosis Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY,ISBN 0879755768
^ Spanos, Nicholas P. and John F. Chaves (1989). Hypnosis: the Cognitive-behavioral Perspective. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
^ Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestibility. New York, Wiley, 1953.
^ Pavlov, I. P.: Experimental Psychology. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.
^ Braid J (1843). Neurypnology or The rationale of nervous sleep considered in relation with animal magnetism.. Buffalo, N.Y.: John Churchill.
^ Morgan J.D. (1993). The Principles of Hypnotherapy. Eildon Press.
^electronic copy of The Principles of Hypnotherapy. Retrieved on2007-01-22.
^"Obesity". Medical Reference.University of Maryland Medical Center. Retrieved on2007-05-09.
^abcde Nash, Michael R. "The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis". Scientific American: July 2001
^ Hilgard, E. R. (1965). Hypnotic susceptibility. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World.
^Liébeault, Le sommeil provoqué (Paris, 1889)
^ See, for example, general information on the ASCH website:[1]
^ Physically Focused Hypnotherapy (A Practical Guide for Professionals to Treating Physical Conditions in Everyday Practice),ISBN 0-9711185-0-7
^ Barrett, Deirdre (1997) The Pregnant Man and Other Cases from a Hypnotherapist‘s Couch, Times/Random House, NY, IBSN 0-812-929055
^ Spiegel, D. and Moore, R. (1997) "Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients" Oncology 11(8): pp. 1179-1195
^ Garrow, D. and Egede, L. E. (November 2006) "National patterns and correlates of complementary and alternative medicine use in adults with diabetes" Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 12(9): pp. 895-902
^ Mascot, C. (2004) "Hypnotherapy: A complementary therapy with broad applications" Diabetes Self Management 21(5): pp.15-18
^ Kwekkeboom, K.L. and Gretarsdottir, E. (2006) "Systematic review of relaxation interventions for pain" Journal of Nursing Scholarship 38(3): pp.269-277
^ Astin, J.A. et al. (2003) "Mind-body medicine: state of the science, implications for practice" Journal of the American Board of Family Practitioners 16(2): pp.131-147
^abQuestions and Answers about Memories of Childhood Abuse. Americal Psychological Association. Retrieved on2007-01-22.
^abAmerican Medical Association Report of the Council on Scientific Affairs, June 16, 1994, CSA Report 5-A-94, Subject: Memories of Childhood Abuse. Retrieved on2007-01-22.
^ab Wagstaff, Graham F. (1981) Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief St. Martin‘s Press, New York,ISBN 0312401574
^
^ Waterfield, R. (2002). Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis. pp. 36-37
^ André M. Weitzenbhoffer. The Practice of Hypnotism 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p583-587, 2000ISBN 0-471-29790-9
^ Pratt, George J. et al. (1988). A Clinical Hypnosis Primer. pp. 59
^ Pratt, George J. et al. (1988). A Clinical Hypnosis Primer. pp. 371-372
^ Zablocki, Benjamin (October 1997) "The Blacklisting of a Concept: The Strange History of the Brainwashing Conjecture in the Sociology of Religion" Nova Religio 1(1): pp. 96-121
^ Waterfield, Robin A. (2003) Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis Brunner-Routledge, New York,ISBN 0415947928 pp. 361-390
^ab Yapko, Micheal (1990). Trancework: An introduction to the practice of Clinical Hypnosis. NY, New York: Brunner/Mazel, 28.
^"Kreskin Celebrates New Jersey Supreme Court Decision Re: Hypnosis". AmazingKreskin.com (August 14,2006). Retrieved on2007-05-09.
^"Hypnotist The Incredible BORIS - TV Credits and Awards - Also watch video of guest appearance on the show titled Did I really do that". comedywood.com (May 11,2007). Retrieved on2007-05-11.
(1 June1991) in Heap, Michael, and Windy Dryden (eds.): Hypnotherapy: A Handbook (Psychotherapy Handbooks). Open University Press.ISBN 0335098878.
Ambrose G, Newbold G. Handbook of Medical Hypnosis. 4th edition.London; Balliere Tindalt. 1980. Della Sala, 1999. Mind Myths: ExploringPopular Assumptions about the Mind and Brain. New York; Wiley
[edit] See also
Chicken hypnosis
Highway hypnosis
Hypnagogia
Hypnotherapy
Hypnofetishism
Hypnosis (novel)
Hypnosurgery
Neuro-linguistic programming
Post-hypnotic suggestion
Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)
Bicameralism (psychology)
[edit] External links

Look upHypnosis in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Societies
The International Society of Hypnosis
American Society for Clinical Hypnosis
European Society of Hypnosis
American Board of Hypnotherapy
General Hypnotherapy Standards Council
The British Society of Clinical Hypnosis
Journals
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal focussing on experimental issues
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal focussing on clinical issues
Contemporary Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal covering experimental and clinical research
Articles
Scientific American Article on Hypnosis
Key concepts in hypnosis
History of Hypnosis in Medicine and Psychiatry